Glossary
A
Abundance estimate
The quantification of the total number of whales or seals within a certain population or geographic area. Repeating abundance estimate surveys over time in a specific area is an important tool to understanding if the number of animals is growing or declining over time. This allows scientists and policymakers make informed decisions about conservation strategies and management practices.
Adaptation
“The natural process by which a living species becomes the best fitted for its environment. Adaptations are a result of natural selection’s acting upon heritable variation over several generations” (Gittleman, 2022). Organisms adapt in many different ways, their body structure, their physiology, the way they move through their environment, and even on genetical and molecular level.
Adaptive management
Adaptive management is a structured, step-by-step approach to improving resource management by learning from the outcomes of past decisions. It involves making decisions in the face of uncertainty, closely monitoring the results, and adjusting strategies over time. The goal is to reduce uncertainty and improve decision-making by continuously refining practices based on what is learned. It emphasises accountability and clarity in each decision-making step, allowing for flexibility and better long-term management of resources.
Albedo
The fraction of light that gets reflected by a surface. Bright materials have a higher albedo (i.e., capacity to reflect light) than darker materials. In this context, snow or ice have a higher albedo than charcoal.
Algal bloom
Quick growth in the population of algae in freshwater or marine ecosystems, as a result of excessive nutrients in the environment. It is usually characterised by changes in the colouration of the sea depending on which species of algae have caused the bloom (red, brown or green). These blooms have a harmful effect on the environment and other species that live in the area: the limit the amount of light that penetrates the water surface, use up all the oxygen in the water and suffocate other organisms, and even produce toxins as a by-product of their metabolism.
Ambergris
Also known as grey amber. Solid, waxy substance produced in sperm whale intestines. Fresh ambergris is black, soft, and has an unpleasant smell, while exposure to sun causes it to harden, become light grey or yellow, and get the pleasant smell it is recognised for. In sperm whales, it is assumed to protect their intestines from irritation caused by undigestible objects like squid beaks or cuttlebone. In Eastern cultures it is used in medicine and as a spice, while in Western cultures it has use as a perfume stabiliser (Encyclopædia Britannica).
Anthropogenic
Of human origin. Changes in the environment or pollution caused by human activities such as farming, mining, fishing, are called anthropogenic changes. Anthropogenic underwater noise is sound caused by ships, building marine infrastructure, sonar, and other human activities.
Aquaculture
Farming in the water, both fresh and sea, i.e., breeding, raising, and harvesting aquatic organisms, such as fish, shellfish, crabs, or algae for profit.
Arctic amplification
A phenomenon whereby any change (negative or positive) in the energy received by the Earth tends to result in a larger temperature change in the Arctic. This phenomenon has caused the Arctic to warm up to three to four times faster than other parts of the globe due to climate change (Rantanen et al., 2022).
Arctic Council
The Arctic Council is as an intergovernmental platform dedicated to tackling the challenges faced by Arctic governments and the Indigenous communities inhabiting the region. The Arctic Council is formed by eight member states, each with sovereignty over territories within the Arctic Circle: Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States.
Assesment
Scientific evaluation of a species, population, or stock, to determine its health status based on what is known about its abundance, demographics, genetics, distribution over time, and what disturbances it is subjected to. This tells us whether (and how much) it is at risk from ecological or anthropogenic pressures.
Atom
The basic particle of chemical elements. Consists of a nucleus with protons and neutrons, surrounded by orbiting electrons.
Autotroph
Organisms that make their own food through photosynthesis or chemical synthesis, also called primary producers. Plants, algae, and many bacteria, for instance, are autotrophic.
B
Baleen
Keratin-based structure (like hair, fingernails, and hooves) forming parallel plates that hang from the upper jaw of whales like a comb. This structure filters food from water and is what gives baleen whales their name.
Baleen whale
Any cetacean possessing unique modifications of the mouth called baleen, which is used to filter food from water (Encyclopædia Britannica). There are 6 species of baleen whales in the NAMMCO management area.
Barnacle
A marine crustacean, that lives very often encrusted attached to a hard substrate such as a rock, shell, ship or whale. Some barnacle species attach only to one species of whale.
Beaked whales
Family of toothed whales counting 22 species. They are the least known of all whale species because they mostly stay in deep offshore areas, avoid boats, and are hard to identify. Almost everything we know about these animals, we learned from stranded individuals. They are named after their extended snout, and most species of this family only have one pair of tusk-like teeth that is only visible in males.
Benthos
In marine ecosystems, all the organisms that live on, in, or near the sea floor (benthic zone). These often have benthic adaptations, such as flattened bodies or the ability to withstand huge pressure.
Bioaccumulation
The gradual build-up of a chemical substance over time in a living organism, either because it is taken up faster than it can be used or because the chemical cannot be used or excreted by the organism. Bioaccumulation can be dangerous for that organism if the accumulated chemical is toxic.
Biodegradable
A material that can by broken down and returned to the environment through natural processes, such as being consumed by fungi or bacteria.
Biodiversity
All different plant and animal species that live in the same habitat. The level of biodiversity can be a good indicator of the state (health and stability) of the ecosystem.
Biomagnification
Increase in concentration of a chemical substance with increasing trophic level of organism in the food web (Drouillard 2008). For example, even if the concentration of mercury is low in algae, a fish that eats lots of algae will accumulate more mercury; if a dolphin eats lots of those fish, the mercury levels in that dolphin will be much higher than in the algae.
Blubber
A thick layer of fat under the skin of a marine mammal. The blubber serves as food storage, insulation, and helps regulate buoyancy.
Bottom feeder
Animals that feed on other organisms that live on or near the bottom of a body of water.
Bottom trawling
Using a type of trawl that is dragged along the sea floor to collect benthic species. Because the net is weighted down with heavy beams, this fishing method often breaks or crushes plants and animals that are attached to the seabed.
Bow-riding
Behaviour where toothed whales swim at the front of a moving boat, or even a larger whale, riding the pressure waves created by its bow. By positioning themselves correctly, they can be propelled forward with little effort, often leaping and surfing along the boat’s wake.
Bradycardia
Extremely slow heartrate. Slowing down the heart and pumping blood slower through the body is a way to conserve oxygen when an animal is diving for a long time. Blue whale hearts can beat as slow as two times per minute (Goldbogen et al. 2019)!
Breaching
Behaviour where a whale or dolphin launches most or all of its body out of the water and falls with a big splash. This can happen when the animal feels playful, annoyed or aggressive, to scare fish or signal to other members of a group, and likely many other reasons.
Breeding ground
Areas where male and female marine mammals gather for mating, and where females give birth and nurse their calves. For seals and walruses, this always takes place on land or ice. Each species’ breeding season depends on its life cycle.
Bubble net feeding
A learned, cooperative feeding strategy that involves a group of whales. Humpback whales and Bryde’s whales use this strategy. The whales circle a school of small fish or swarms of krill they are hunting and start blowing bubbles. The fish are unable to escape this “net” of bubbles and stay trapped. Then the whales swim with their mouths open through the trapped fish, and efficiently feed themselves.
Buoyancy
The ability of a body to float or to rise to the surface when submerged in the water. Negative buoyancy means the body will sink unless prevented (e.g., by swimming hard).
C
CAFF – Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna
CAFF is the Biodiversity Working Group of the Arctic Council. The main goal of the Working Group is the conservation of the Arctic’s biodiversity and the sustainable management of its living resources. CAFF works to address the challenges facing Arctic ecosystems, including climate change, habitat loss, and the impacts of human activities.
Calf
Young (baby to juvenile) marine mammal. Young seals are more commonly called pups, but calf is used for whales, dolphins, porpoises, and walrus.
Canine
Single-pointed tooth adapted for tearing or piercing food. They are positioned next to, or behind the front teeth.
Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
A chemical compound formed by carbon and oxygen that is one of the most important greenhouse gases.
Carbon footprint
The amount of carbon dioxide and other carbon-based greenhouse gas, such as methane, emissions associated with all the activities of a person, entity, or activity (Encyclopædia Britannica).
Carbon tunnel vision
A concept that refers to the narrow focus on decreasing carbon dioxide emissions when addressing climate change, overlooking the broader spectrum of sustainable measures needed to tackle climate change.
Carnivores
Plants and animals that feed on other animals.
Cetacean
Any member of an entirely aquatic group of mammals commonly known as whales, dolphins, and porpoises (Encyclopædia Britannica). Six species of baleen whales and 10 species of toothed whales are common permanent residents in the NAMMCO management area.
Circumpolar
Distribution type where species occur over a wide range of longitudes, but only in high latitudes. That means that species can be found all around either the North or the South Pole. An example of a species with circumpolar distribution is the polar bear.
Citizen science
Research conducted with members of the general public and/or nonprofessional researchers that has the potential to include people who are not usually involved in science, and thus bring closer the science, decision making, and society as a whole for the benefit of all.
Coexistence
Living or existing at the same time in the same place. Ability of different species (including humans) to live together in the same ecosystem without one driving the other to extinction. It addresses how species interact, compete for resources, and establish stable populations within a shared habitat.
Commercial whaling
Whaling for the purpose of generating economic profit, as opposed to subsistence whaling. With larger, faster vessels and improved technology in the 1800s, some whaling operations started happening on an industrial scale, e.g., with factory ships. Nowadays, all commercial whaling in the North Atlantic is done on a non-industrial scale.
Cone-shaped tooth
This type of teeth are pointed, sharp, and shaped like a cone. Dolphins have teeth like this. This shape helps them grip and tear into their prey more effectively, as they often hunt larger or more agile fish.
Conservation
Attempts to ensure that natural resources (habitats, plants, animals, energy sources) are maintained for future generations to use and enjoy (see also sustainability). Conservation is different from preservation, which completely forbids the use of these resources, while both can be forms of environmental protection. NAMMCO is a conservation organisation, which supports the sustainable use of marine mammals to ensure they remain available in the years to come.
Cosmopolite
A species that can be found almost anywhere on Earth, as it is able to adapt to a wide variety of environmental conditions.
Countershading
A form of camouflage utilised by animals, where their coloration is darker on the upper side of the body and lighter on the underside. This adaptation, which is very common in pelagic species, helps them blend into their environment by reducing the contrast between their body and the surrounding light conditions, making it more challenging for predators or prey to spot them when viewed from above or below.
Crossbreeding
The process of breeding an organism with parents of two different breeds, varieties, species, or populations.
Crustaceans
Primarily aquatic group of arthropods (often with shells or “crusts”), which includes crabs, shrimp, krill, and barnacles, among many others.
Cumulative impacts
The combined effects of multiple activities or environmental changes over time that, together, cause greater harm to a species or ecosystem than each would individually. They build up gradually, often leading to significant long-term damage that may not be apparent from any single action alone.
Cuttlebone
Also known as cuttlefish bone. Thick, internal, calcified shell that helps cuttlefish regulate buoyancy.
D
Decision-making
The process of selecting a course of action from available alternatives based on the analysis of information, estimation of probabilities, and assigning values to anticipated outcomes. A decision usually concerns a specific situation, for example, managers deciding on the number of animals that can be hunted in a region based on the available scientific data.
Decompression sickness
Also known as divers’ disease or the bends. It happens when a diving person or animal ascends to the surface too quickly. Because of the sudden changes in pressure, the dissolved nitrogen in the blood gets released in the form of bubbles in the bloodstream and tissues and can cause different symptoms, such as fatigue, dizziness, neurological disturbances, pain, and even death.
Descendant
A plant or an animal that is related in a direct biological line to a particular plant or animal that lived before them.
Detritus
Non-living biological material (organic matter) that is created from decomposing organisms, discarded animal parts like exoskeletons, or feces. In the ocean, detritus sinking slowly through the water column is called marine snow, which is crucial for transporting nutrients from surface waters to deeper zones.
Disturbance
An event or action that changes or interrupts the natural behaviour of plants, animals or the environment. In this context we are talking about human activities that cause negative changes in the environment.
Dorsal fin
The fin, made primarily from cartilage (like your ears) located on the back of marine mammals. The shape and size of the dorsal fin is useful for distinguishing similar species, and in some species, such as bottlenose dolphins, can even help us identify individuals!
Dredging
The mechanical process of removing sediment, debris, or other material from the bottom of bodies of water such as rivers, harbours, lakes, or seas. It is done to keep waterways deep enough for ships, support port construction, extract underwater resources like sand, prevent flooding by clearing blockages, and clean up polluted sediments. Dredging can harm marine ecosystems by destroying habitats on the sea floor, increasing water turbidity, and disturbing or displacing marine life. It may also release pollutants trapped in the sediment, affecting water quality and the health of nearby organisms.
E
Echolocation
A biological sonar used by toothed whales to determine the location of objects using sound. Echolocation is used for orientation in 3D space, for locating prey, and in social interactions. Toothed whales have a special organ in the front of their head—the melon—made of fatty tissue that acts as a sound lens.
Eco-friendly
Aiming to be not harmful to the environment.
Ecology
“The study of relationships between living things and their environment” (British Ecological Society). Marine mammal ecology studies the behaviour, movement patterns, distribution, and abundance of these species as it is influenced by the physical characteristics of the ocean, the availability of food, and human activities.
Ecosystem
Complex system formed of all living organisms and their interactions between each other and their physical environment in a particular area. All components of an ecosystem are connected through the flow of nutrients and energy.
Ecosystem-based management
Integrated approach that incorporates the entire ecosystem, including humans, into resource management decisions, and is guided by an adaptive management approach (NOAA).
Ecotype
Population that belongs to a species but is genetically, morphologically, and/or behaviourally distinct from the rest of the species. Ecotypes are adapted to a specific environmental condition or habitat and often look different from other ecotypes within that species.
Entanglement
Process in which an animal or part of one (e.g., jaw, flukes), becomes trapped in human-made objects, including marine debris, abandoned (ghost) fishing gear, and active fishing equipment.
Entrapment
Event where a pod of cetaceans gets surrounded by ice due to rapidly forming or shifting sea ice. If the animals are unable to leave the entrapment, this can lead to the death of some or all pod members.
Environment
Everything that surrounds someone or something, natural or human made. The conditions that surround a person, animal, or a plant and that influence their growth, health, and all natural processes (Encyclopædia Britannica).
Evolution
Changes in the characteristics of a species through the process of natural selection. Organisms with the best suited adaptations for their current environmental conditions pass on their genes to the next generation, and this can often lead to very specialised abilities and behaviours.
Extinction
The dying out or extermination of a species. This can happen through natural processes (e.g., a species not being able to survive competition with others), natural disasters (e.g., endemic plants being wiped out by a volcanic eruption), as well as through human activities (e.g., destroying the habitat of river dolphins, overexploitation of the Steller’s sea cow).
Eye lens
The curved, transparent part of the eye that bends and focuses light. Its primary function is to regulate the amount of light entering the eye and enable marine mammals to see clearly underwater.
F
FAO – Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations
The Food and Agriculture Organisation is a body of the United Nations (UN) with the main goal of defeating world hunger and achieving food security for all.
Feeback loop
In climate change, a feedback loop is a mechanism that either accelerates or decelerates a temperature trend. A positive feedback loop increases the rate of temperature rise, while a negative feedback loop decreases it. For instance, rising temperatures lead to reduced ice cover, which lowers the earth’s albedo and leads to faster temperature increases.
Feeding aggregation
A gathering or concentration of individuals of a species in a particular area for the purpose of feeding. For some species, the timing and location of seasonal feeding aggregations can be predicted by the movement of available prey.
Feeding ground
Areas of the sea/ocean where marine mammals gather to find and hunt food, typically because of predictable concentrations of prey in those areas.
Fin
A thin flat appendage that sticks out from the body of a cetacean and is used in stabilising, moving or guiding the animal through water (Encyclopædia Britannica). All cetaceans have pectoral fins (near the front of their body) and caudal fins or flukes (at their tail). Most species also have a dorsal fin on their back, but in some it is very small or nonexistent.
Fission-fusion society
A form of social organisation in which groups merge and split up depending on the time of day, year, or activity. Members of a fission-fusion society have few or no stable connections with other members, that is, they don’t always stay together.
Fitness
The ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its current environment.
Fluke print
ooth circles on the surface of water left by the movement of a cetacean’s tail fluke underwater. These fluke prints are useful in hunting and whale-watching, to follow the whale under the surface of the water as well as to determine the size of the whale.
Food chain
The sequence of transfers of matter and energy in the form of food from one organism to another that consumes it.
Food insecurity
According to FAO, a person is food insecure when they lack regular access to enough safe and nutritious food for normal growth and development and an active and healthy life. This may be due to unavailability of food and/or lack of resources to obtain food.
Food security
The condition in which all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and preferences for an active and healthy life (World Food Summit, 1996).
Food system
According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), food systems include all the elements and activities related to producing and consuming food, and their effects, including economic, health, and environmental outcomes.
Food web
A complex network of interconnecting and overlapping food chains showing feeding relationships within an ecosystem (Encyclopædia Britannica).
Frequency
The number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time, such as the appearance of harbour porpoises in a fjord during a year or the number of your heartbeats per minute. The frequency of a particular sound refers to the number of soundwave vibrations created per second—high frequency sounds are more high-pitched, low frequency sounds are deeper.
G
Game piece
Pieces that are moved around in board games like chess or checkers. The game pieces were historically carved from different natural materials like wood and ivory, and in some countries that were whale hunting countries, they were made from marine mammal bones.
Ghost (fishing) gear
Fishing equipment (nets, lines, traps, or pieces of them) that has been lost, abandoned, or discarded in the ocean. This gear continues to float or drift in the water, often being carried by currents and winds, without being actively controlled or used, and posing serious threats to marine life and their habitats.
Gillnet
Type of fishing gear. A wall of net that hangs in the water column. It is made so that fishes’ heads can pass through the mesh size but not their body, so their gills get stuck in the net.
Global North
Global North and Global South are the terms used to group countries based on their defining characteristics with regard to socioeconomics and politics. More specifically, the Global North consists of the world’s developed countries, whereas the Global South consists of the world’s developing countries and least developed countries. The terms do not refer to the Northern and Southern hemisphere, as some of the countries of the Global North are located in the geographical south, and vice versa.
Greenhouse gases
Gases present in Earth’s atmosphere that trap heat by allowing sunlight to pass through but preventing heat from escaping back into space. The primary greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons.
Grindadráp
A traditional method of drive hunting practiced in the Faroe Islands, which involves herding various species of whales and dolphins, predominantly pilot whales, into shallow bays where they are then beached and slaughtered.
Guideline
A general rule, principle or a piece of information. Suggests or instructs on how an activity needs to be performed, or how people are expected to behave in a given situation.
H
Habitat
Place where an organism or a community of organisms lives, including all living and non-living factors or conditions of the surrounding environment (Encyclopædia Britannica).
Harpoon
A barbed spear used to kill whales, tuna, swordfish, and other large sea creatures, formerly thrown by hand but now, in the case of whales, shot from specially constructed guns (Encyclopædia Britannica).
Haul out
A behaviour that pinnipeds have when they temporarily leave the water for reproducing or resting, among other things.
Head-butting
Aggressive or play behaviour in which two animals hit each other head-to-head. This is often seen in goats, sheep, and deer.
Herbivores
All animals that feed on plants, algae or phytoplankton.
Hertz (Hz)
The unity of frequency in the International System of Units (SI). It measures the number of cycles per second of a periodic phenomenon, e.g. one hertz corresponds to one cycle occurring in one second. Sound frequencies are measured in Hz.
Human activity
Actions (projects, pastimes, tasks) that humans undertake, which can have intentional and unintentional effects on the environment. In the marine environment, human activities include hunting, fishing, shipping, dredging, whale-watching, tourism, aquaculture, building infrastructure, extracting energy resources and materials, etc.
Hybrid
An offspring resulting from the crossbreeding of two different species, such as between fin and blue whales.
I
Indigenous Knowledge
A body of observations, oral and written knowledge, innovations, practices, and beliefs developed by Tribes and Indigenous Peoples through interaction and experience with the environment. It is applied to phenomena across biological, physical, social, cultural, and spiritual systems. Indigenous Knowledge can be developed over millennia, continues to develop, and includes understanding based on evidence acquired through direct contact with the environment and long-term experiences, as well as extensive observations, lessons, and skills passed from generation to generation (Guidance for United States Federal Departments and Agencies on Indigenous Knowledge).
Indigenous whaling
Whaling conducted by native communities for subsistence, tradition or cultural practices. This type of hunt is generally well regulated to ensure sustainability and respect for cultural heritage.
Industrial whaling
Large-scale commercial whale hunting operations that began during the 19th century, using advanced technology and large factory vessels to maximise catches. Industrial whaling in the 19th and 20th centuries had a significant negative impact on the species hunted.
Insulation
A layer of material that prevents heat, sound, or electricity from escaping or entering a body or building.
Intensity (sound)
A sound source in the water causes movement of the water molecules with a certain amount of energy that flows away from the source—this is how sound travels. Acoustic intensity is the amount of this energy that passes through another area of water, in other words, how loud the sound is when it reaches you or another object.
Interdisciplinary
Relating to more than one branch of science, e.g. biology, physics, mathematics, sociology, and combining methods or expertise from them.
Intestine
Bowel. Muscular tube extending from the stomach to the anus. The primary purpose is food digestion, and either absorption of the nutrients or expelling of the residue.
Invertebrate
Any animal that doesn’t have a backbone (vertebral column), such as insects, molluscs, worms, sponges, and many, many more. Animals that do have a backbone are called vertebrates—and that list is much shorter.
IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature
Established in 1948, the IUCN is the world’s largest environmental network, composed of over 1,400 member organisations, including governments and civil society organisations. Its mission is to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable. The IUCN Red List indicates the status and extinction risk of every known species on Earth.
IWC – International Whaling Commission
Created in 1946, the IWC is a worldwide body responsible for the management of whaling and conservation of whales formed by 88 member countries
J
K
Kelp forest
Important underwater habitats in arctic and subarctic waters. They are large congregations of kelp—a type of brown algae that grows many metres tall—that provide food and safety for many marine species and are recognised as one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth.
Krill
Shrimp-like crustaceans that live in the open sea. They tend to form swarms of several thousand individuals, and are an important food source for many large animals like baleen whales.
L
Lair
A cave-like place where a wild animal lives. Ringed seals use snow lairs as shelters from the extreme cold temperatures and harsh weather conditions, as well as for giving birth and nursing their pups.
Lanugo
Soft, white, fine hair that covers the body of a seal pup inside of the uterus. Most pups have their first moult, shedding lanugo while still in-utero, but some, like ringed or harp seals are born white and covered with lanugo and shed it only after they are born.
Larva
(Plural: larvae) Intermediate stage in the development of many animal species, between egg and adulthood. Larvae are often a very different shape from the adults of their species.
Leads
Leads are linear fractures in sea ice that occur at any time of the year. They can extend for hundreds of kilometres and can be from a few to several hundreds of metres in width.
Lipid-rich
Foods that have high content of omega-3 fatty acids and other beneficial fats. Fish species like mackerel, herring, salmon, and capelin are lipid-rich.
Livelihood
Means of securing the basic necessities of life, such as food, shelter, and clothing. In simple terms, it is all ways people earn a living, including employment, self-employment, agriculture, fishing, and other income-generating activities.
Lobtailing
A form of social behaviour of cetaceans where an animal lifts its tail fluke above the water and brings it down with force. The result is a big splash. They display this behaviour in order to call attention to other individuals or corral fish into a ball.
Longline fishing
A fishing method that uses a long main line with baited hooks evenly spaced and attached to the main line by short branch lines.
Lunge feeding
Feeding method of some baleen whales where a whale rushes towards its prey with its mouth open and catches the prey in one go.
M
Management
In an environmental context, the systems and processes put in place to regulate human activity and minimise its negative interactions with the environment.
Management area
The geographic area at which management is done for a given species. A species can have a wide distributional range and be impacted very differently by human activities in various parts of this range. Different threats require different conservation approaches and, therefore, management is done not at the species level, but at the area level, which is relevant for that particular species.
Marine debris
Any human-made object that ends up in the marine environment such as straws, soda bottles, plastic grocery bags, fishing gear, etc.
Marine protected areas
A marine protected area (MPA) is a clearly defined region established to conserve marine biodiversity, ecosystem health, and cultural heritage. As part of a globally connected network, MPAs help safeguard marine resources while ensuring the continued supply of essential ecosystem services. Effects of MPAs can be seen not just in the areas themselves, but also surrounding areas, as marine life “spills” over the boarders of the MPA increasing biodiversity and biomass in the areas around it. Not all MPAs have the same level of protection: while some are fully protected and nothing can be taken from there, others allow for some level of resource extraction.
Mating
Male and female animals from the same species coming together for the purpose of sexual reproduction.
Matriarchal
Societal structure in which positions of power are held by female individuals. Some animal societies, like killer whale pods, are an example of matriarchal societies. In their pods, the oldest female—grandmother—has a leading role.
Mattak
A traditional food in Inuit, Chukchi, and Nenets cuisine consisting of sliced whale skin with blubber.
Melon
A round, fatty organ located in the forehead of the toothed whales and used in echolocation and communication. Its function is to focus and adjust the animals’ vocalisation, acting as a sound lens.
Methane (CH₄)
A chemical compound formed by one carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms. It is the main compound of natural gas and one of the most potent greenhouse gases.
Microplastics
Plastic fragments smaller than 5 mm in length (according to NOAA and European Chemicals Agency) that are present as a consequence of the plastic pollution. There are two types: primary and secondary. Primary microplastics are microbeads, plastic pellets, and plastic fibres used in personal care products, as a raw material, or in clothing. Secondary microplastics are a product of larger plastic breakdown from exposure to elements and time.
Migration
The behaviour in which animals travel from one habitat to another habitat to cover different needs, such as finding better environmental conditions, searching for food or reproducing. For large animals like whales, migration routes can be several thousand kilometres long, while for zooplankton, it is barely tens or hundreds of metres.
Mining
The process of digging a valuable material, minerals, from the Earth. Mining can be surface or underground. In surface mining, the minerals are extracted from near the Earth’s surface and this type can be very destructive to surrounding area. Underground mining consists of taking minerals from deep under the surface by digging or blasting tunnels. Deep sea or seabed mining refers to extracting minerals from the ocean floor.
MINTAG Project
The MINTAG Project is funded by NAMMCO and Fisheries Agency of Japan. The main goal of the project is to develop a new satellite tracking tool that can generate data crucial to improving the management and conservation of lesser-known whale species, such as fin, minke, sei, and Bryde’s whales.
Mitigation
The action undertaken to reduce or minimise the severity, seriousness or negative consequences of something. For example, different rules and regulations made to help fight the negative effects of climate change.
Monitoring
Activity that ensures that something is happening in accordance with rules and regulations. In the context of hunting, monitoring is conducted to make sure that animals are hunted in compliance with welfare standards, safety standards for the hunters, and that government guidelines for hunted stocks are being followed.
Moratorium
A temporary delay or suspension of activity, law or payment. In our context, the moratorium reefers to the cessation of the hunt of large whales in 1985 onwards. That means that since then, the member countries of the IWC have stopped whaling, with the exception of Iceland and Norway.
Mortality rate
The number of deaths in a given population over a period of time due to a defined cause. For example, the number of dead striped dolphins per month due to a contagious virus.
Moulting
The natural process in which an animal loses its feathers, skin, or hair at a particular time of year so that new feathers, skin, or hair can grow.
N
NAMMCO-North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission
Established in 1992, NAMMCO is an intergovernmental body for cooperation on conservation, management, and study of cetaceans and pinnipeds in the North Atlantic, formed by the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Iceland, and Norway. NAMMCO advocates that all people, Indigenous or not, have a right to the sustainable use of marine mammals as a resource, without distinguishing between subsistence and commercial whaling.
Nanoplastics
Plastic fragments smaller than 1 micrometre in size. Formed as a result of microplastics breaking down from exposure to time and weather elements.
NASS-North Atlantic Sightings Surveys
NASS are internationally coordinated cetacean surveys conducted in 1987, 1989, 1995, 2001, 2007, 2015, and 2024. These surveys are among the most extensive wildlife assessments, with primary objective to obtain quantitative data on the distribution and abundance of cetacean species across the survey area, spanning the northern North Atlantic from Norway to North America.
Naturalist
An expert or a student of the natural world.
Navigation
Planning a route and moving towards a target while avoiding obstacles.
Necropsy
Autopsy, dissection of a dead animal to determine its characteristics, such as age, sex, health status (before dying), find the cause of death, and extract tissue samples for testing. Often performed on cetaceans that stranded.
NGO
Non-governmental organisation. According to the United Nations, an NGO is an non-profit organisation, group, or institution that operates independently from a Government, and has humanitarian or development objectives.
Nursing
The act of a female mammal feeding milk to a baby or juvenile. The female’s mammary glands produce milk that is rich in all the nutrients that the offspring needs for optimal growth and development. The milk content differs from species to species, depending on what the young need for development. Pinnipeds always nurse on land or ice, while cetaceans nurse underwater.
Nutrient
A substance found in food, such as proteins, sugars, fats, or vitamins, that provides the body with the necessary fuel and materials to grow, develop, and maintain health.
Nutritional value
The measure of essential nutrients including carbohydrates, fat, protein, minerals, and vitamins in items of food.
O
Ocean acidification
The process of sea water becoming more acidic (lower pH value) caused by the excess of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolving in the water and forming acid. The levels of carbon dioxide are rising due to different human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes. Ocean acidification causes issues for all life in the ocean.
Ocean warming
The process of rising sea water temperatures caused by the Earth’s atmosphere trapping more heat due to greenhouse gas emissions, with the oceans absorbing most of this excess heat. Ocean warming can have catastrophic consequences on all life, both in the water, but also on land.
Offspring
A plant or animal’s immediate descendant, the direct product of reproduction.
Omnivores
All animals that eat both plants or phytoplankton and other animals.
Overexploitation
Excessively harvesting a natural resource faster than it can replenish itself through natural processes. For instance, using too much freshwater for agriculture can deplete aquifers because the water cycle takes longer to refill them; hunting too many blue whales in the 20th century dramatically reduced their global population because their reproductive rate is slow.
Overfishing
Catching fish at a higher rate than the population or stock has a chance to recover. To simplify, there are not enough mature adults that can reproduce and keep the population healthy. Overfishing leads to decreases in population numbers and can even lead to crashes of entire fishing grounds.
Overgrazed kelp forest
Sea urchins are one of the species that feed on kelp. When the population of sea urchins grow uncontrollably, due to their predators being removed from the food web, they overfeed on these forests and cause them to disappear, destroying the entire ecosystem. Once the kelp is gone, it is replaced by other algal species that don’t have the same function as kelp.
P
Pack ice
Any area of sea ice that is not attached to the land and is made up of smaller parts that have frozen together. Because it is not attached to the shore, pack ice can move, so another name for it is drift ice. It expands during the winter and recedes during the summer.
Parasite
An organism that lives in or on a host organism of a different species, and uses that organisms’ resources at the detriment of the host organism. Tapeworms are one well-known kind of parasite.
Pectoral fins
Also known as flippers. A pair of fins located near the front and sides of a catacean (or fish), used primarily to stabilise and steer the body through the water, i.e., not for locomotion.
Photosynthesis
Process in which primary producers—plants and phytoplankton—use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce energy in the form of sugar glucose and oxygen.
Phytoplankton
Small (generally microscopic) bacteria, protists, and plants that live floating in the water column rather than attached to a surface like the seabed. The base of all marine food webs.
Pile-driving
Hammering long columns of steel, wood, or concrete into the seafloor to create supports for structures like piers, bridges, and wind turbines.
Pinniped
Any of a group of 34 species of aquatic fin-footed mammals comprising seals, sea lions, and the walrus (Encyclopædia Britannica). Seven pinniped species are permanent residents in the NAMMCO management area.
Plankton
Organisms that float in the water column without strong swimming abilities, i.e., that cannot propel themselves for large distances or against currents. Planktonic life includes phytoplankton, which lives in the surface layers where there is light to photosynthesise, and zooplankton, which can live throughout the water column.
Pod
Social groups of marine mammals that share strong social bonds. These groups have established hierarchy, and usually consist of related family members. Sometimes, many different pods can come together in one super-pod of hundreds or thousands of animals, e.g., if there is a lot of food available, usually for a short period.
Policymaking
The process of formulating and implementing policies to address societal and environmental issues by establishing frameworks and boundaries, and legitimising participants in the decision-making process. Policymaking creates the rules, while decision–making implements actions based on those rules. Decision-making can also occur for specific situations before a relevant policy is formed, sometimes helping create new policies based on that example.
Pollutant
Harmful material or energy in the environment. A substance that makes the land, water, air and other media dirty, unsafe or unsuitable for use by anything that lives there. Plastic, toxic chemicals, noise, even light, can all be pollutants for different species.
Pollution
The addition of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or any form of energy (such as heat, sound, or radioactivity) to the environment at a rate faster than it can be dispersed, diluted, decomposed, recycled, or stored in some harmless form (Encyclopædia Britannica).
Polynya
Large, open-water area surrounded by sea ice. They can be coastal or open-ocean.
Population
A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular area at the same time that share a common genetic pool, allowing them to interbreed (Waples and Gaggiotti, 2006).
Poultry
Domesticated birds, e.g., chickens, ducks, pigeons, raised in captivity for the production of eggs, meat, and/or feathers.
Precipitation
Any form of water, liquid or frozen, that forms in the atmosphere and falls back to the earth.
Predator
An animal that preys on, that is, hunts, kills, and eats, other animals.
Prey
An animal that is hunted or killed by another animal, a predator, for food.
Protection
Efforts and regulations to mitigate harmful impacts on the environment (such as laws that prevent pollution). Protection goes hand in hand with conservation, which refers to maintaining biodiversity through sustainable resource use. In some cases, the only way to protect an ecosystem is through preservation, which forbids humans from using it as a resource. In the context of marine mammal hunting, a protected species means that hunting it is forbidden.
Pup
Young offspring of a pinniped. Also called a calf for some species, e.g., walrus.
Q
Qajaq
Greenlandic spelling of kayak. Small, one-person vessel used by Indigenous people for hunting and transportation. In Greenland, it is traditionally made from seal skin stretched over a frame made of whalebone or driftwood.
Quota
A fixed maximum quantity of a resource that each person or group is allowed to take. For instance, the maximum number of minke whales that Norway and Iceland can hunt each year is their minke whale quota.
R
Real-time whale detection system
A setup that detects the presence of whales in a given area at the time they are there and alerts users about them immediately, rather than collecting data for several hours/days/months to be processed later.
Regulation
A rule or legally binding instruction that an authority issues and controls its implementation. These regulations help guide behaviour, manage risks, and uphold societal values through enforceable standards. For example, national regulations around hunting determine the species that can be hunted in that country, as well as seasonal restrictions, catch limits, reporting, and hunting methods.
Resource
Any biological, mineral, or aesthetic asset afforded by nature without human intervention that can be used for some form of benefit, whether material (economic) or immaterial (Encyclopædia Britannica).
Rorqual
Largest group of baleen whales, which is characterised by their streamlined bodies and accordion-like folds of skin on their underside (ventral pleats) that stretch when animal feeds by intaking large amount of water at once.
S
Nasal septum
The cartilage wall that separates two nostrils from each other. In adult male hooded seals, part of the nasal septum is very elastic, so they can inflate it and it comes out through their nose like a balloon.
Satellite tagging
Research method used to track the movements and behaviours of animals, particularly those in marine or remote environments. This technique involves attaching a tag equipped with a satellite transmitter to the animal. As the animal moves, the tag sends data via satellite, which researchers can then analyse to gain insights into migration patterns, habitat use, and environmental interactions.
Sea ice
Frozen sea water. It covers part of the Arctic and Antarctic regions throughout the year, and also forms seasonally in some regions. It can be classified as (land)fast ice if it is attached to land or pack ice if it is not.
Seafloor destruction
The physical and ecological damage or degradation of the ocean floor caused by natural events or human activities, leading to the loss of marine habitats, biodiversity, and ecosystem functions.
Secondary sexual characteristics
Physical characteristics that relate to the sex of the organism but are not directly related to the reproductive system. They are developed later in life when the organism reaches sexual maturity. Secondary sexual characteristics may often have a role in securing a mate. Some examples are the antlers of stags, peacocks’ long tails, tusks of narwhals, or the hoods of hooded seals.
Seine (fishing) net
A large net deployed in a way that encircles an entire area, creating a wall of netting that traps the fish on the inner side. Can be deployed close to the shore and pulled in by people or small boats, or with larger boats further offshore as a purse seine, where the bottom of the net is pulled shut like a drawstring purse before it is brought back on board. in a way that encircles an entire area, creating a wall of netting.
Seismic exploration
A way to map what lies underground using sound waves and how they are reflected or absorbed by different materials, usually to detect deposits of oil and gas. To explore what is under the seafloor, a ship blasts compressed air (using what is called a seismic airgun) into the water, creating loud sound waves. Part of the sound is absorbed by the different materials underneath the seabed, while the rest is reflected back towards the ship. The shape and intensity of the sound waves that returns indicates what type of materials there are at different depths.
Selkie
Creatures from Celtic and Norse mythology. Shapeshifters that can change form between seals and humans by removing or putting on their seal skin.
Sexual dimorphism
Phenomenon in which males and females of the same species have a significant difference in appearance. These differences can be in the overall size, shape, colour, or even the presence of different organs (like the nasal sacs of hooded seals).
Sonar
Technology that uses sound to detect objects and navigate, usually in the water. It uses the same principles as echolocation in animals, sending out waves of sound that bounce back when they hit an object. Vessels may use sonar to ”see” changes in seafloor depth or find schools of fish. Naval sonar is used to detect submarines.
Sonar beam
Sound energy that is emitted in a cone or fan shape from the sound source, to detect objects the sound will bounce back from.
Sonar tag
An sensor that uses sonar technology to detect what is in the immediate environment of the animal on which it is placed. Putting a sonar tag on a seal, for instance, would reveal the size and movements of the prey it targets, whether it interacts with human-made objects, and so on.
Soundscape
Acoustic environment. All the sounds produced by natural and artificial elements in a particular habitat or ecosystem. It includes all the sounds organisms make, but also the sounds that come from wind, water, movement of the earth, and human activities.
Spade-shaped tooth
Broader and flatter teeth, such as those that harbour porpoises have. This shape resembles a shovel and is good for grasping and holding onto slippery prey, like fish and squid.
Species
The basic unit of taxonomy. Consists of individuals that share common morphological and physical characteristics and can interbreed and give fertile offspring.
Spectrogram
A visual representation of a sound. It shows the frequencies of a particular sound and how they change over time. When used in audio context, it is also called sonograph, voiceprint, or voicegram.
Spermaceti
A liquid, fatty substance found in the heads of sperm and bottlenose whales. When cooled down it becomes solid and waxy. Humans used this substance in cosmetics, wax candles, ointments, textile finishing, and as industrial lubricant (Encyclopædia Britannica). It was highly prized because of how brightly and clearly it burned in lamps and candles.
Spout
A powerful burst of air, expelled from a whales blowhole, which creates a spray-like blow around the whale’s head. A whale’s spout can be used to recognise a whale species from afar. This is because each species, with their characteristic size and blowhole type, will have a different spout shape.
Spyhopping
A type of surfacing behaviour where a whale is upright with its head coming out of the water and then sinking gently back underwater without splashing. It is used by animals to survey the environment around them.
Squid beak
Mouth of a squid and beginning of its digestive system. Made of a hard, indigestible material (chitin) that is left in stomachs of whales that prey on squids. Beaks remaining in the stomachs of sperm whales are one of the proofs of existence of colossal squid.
Stakeholders
Any individual, social group, or actor who possesses an interest, a legal obligation, a moral right, or other concern in the decisions or outcomes of an organisation. Stakeholders either affect or are affected by the achievement of an organisation’s objectives (Encyclopædia Britannica). In the case of NAMMCO, stakeholders include all individuals who have an interest in the management and conservation of marine mammals, such as managers, scientists, hunters, and tourists.
Stock
A unit of a species or population outlined for management reasons; should be designated and managed in such a way that the population and/or species as a whole persists throughout its range; often comprises a breeding population that occupies the same regions annually (NAMMCO).
Stranding
Event in which one or more cetaceans wash up on shore and cannot return to deeper water. The animals may be found alive, in which case experts may try to return them to the water if there is a chance of survival. This is called refloating; refloated animals may be strand again soon after, depending on the original reason for stranding. Animals may also wash up already dead.
Stress
Biological response to environmental pressures or threats that disrupt the balance in the body. It triggers adaptive behaviours and physiological changes aimed at survival. It is a survival mechanism that helps animals respond to and cope with environmental challenges, but chronic stress can be harmful.
Subsistence
The act of making a living, such that an individual, family, or community has the essential food, income, and cultural enrichment needed to stay fed, sheltered, and healthy. Can be confused with sustenance, which refers primarily to a source of nourishment.
Subsistence whaling
Not intended to maximise profit but to fulfil the subsistence needs of an individual or community. Compare with commercial whaling.
Subspecies
Populations of a species that are physically distinguishable from each other, but that could, at least theoretically, still interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Subspecies usually arise due to geographic isolation, i.e., living separately from each other in habitats that required different adaptations.
Surface skim feeding
Feeding method of some baleen whales, where a whale slowly swims near the surface with its mouth open, filtering the prey as it moves forward.
T
Tail fluke
Triangular ending of a whales’ tail. Like the dorsal fin, flukes do not have bone or muscles. Unique to every whale, similar to fingerprints in humans. Tail flukes are often used for identifying individuals, especially for humpback whales, whose white pigmentation patterns really stand out.
Taxonomy
Branch of science that deals with the identification, classification, and naming of extant (currently living) and extinct (no longer living, fossils) organisms based on shared characteristics. All known organisms are placed in categories that become narrower as more specific characteristics are used to describe them (domain > kingdom > phylum > class > order > family > genus > species). The current way of naming species was developed by Carl Linnaeus and it is called binominal (binary) nomenclature. According to it, each species name consists of two parts: the first is the name of the genus to which the species belongs and the second name distinguishes the species within the genus.
Toothed whale
Odontoceti. Group of cetaceans that include all whales with teeth, as well as dolphins and porpoises. Apart from teeth, they differ from baleen whales in their ability to echolocate. There are 73 species of toothed whales recognised globally, of which 14 reside in the NAMMCO management area.
Top predator
Also known as apex predator. Any carnivorous animal that is at the top of the food chain and has no natural predators. One of the most well-known top predators of the marine environment is the killer whale.
Toxin
A poisonous substance that is a product of metabolic activities of another living organism.
Traditional Ecological Knowledge
Knowledge, practices, and beliefs about relationships between living beings in a specific ecosystem that is acquired by Indigenous people over hundreds or thousands of years through direct contact with the environment, handed down through generations, and used in life-sustaining ways. This knowledge includes the relationships between people, plants, animals, natural phenomena, landscapes, and timing of events for activities such as hunting, fishing, trapping, agriculture, and forestry. It encompasses the world view of a people, which includes ecology, spirituality, human and animal relationships, and more (Synopsis of Traditional Ecological Knowledge, National Park Service).
Trawl
A large net with the form of a cone that is dragged through the water behind a ship to gather fish or other marine life.
Trophic level
Step in a food chain or an ecosystem. The organisms of a chain are classified into these levels on the basis of their feeding behaviour (Encyclopædia Britannica), that is, how many levels they are above primary producers.
True seal
Also known as “earless” seals, true seals belong to a group of pinnipeds that have ear holes, but lack an external ear flap. While sea lions belong to the group of pinnipeds, they are not true seals because they have ear flaps. Grey seals instead, are true seals.
Tubercles
Large raised “bumps” on the edges of humpback whale flippers. These where shown to make their flippers more hydrodynamic, which helps explain how humpback whales are so agile. Engineers have copied the tubercle effect to improve aerodynamic and hydrodynamic technology.
Tusk
A long tooth that animals such elephants, walruses, narwhals, and some beaked whales have. Tusks extend beyond the mouth of the animal, sometimes in a curved or spiral shape, and often only appearing in the males of the species. Can be very valuable in human trade.
U
Ulo knife
Also known as ulu, or a women’s knife. Traditional all-purpose knife used by Indigenous women of the Arctic. It is used for all kinds of purposes, from skinning and cleaning animals, to cutting hair or food, and even trimming ice blocks.
UN – United Nations
The United Nations is an international organisation founded in 1945 with the intended purpose of maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, achieving international cooperation, and serving as a centre for coordinating the actions of member nations. Currently made up of 193 Member States.
V
Ventral pleats
Also called ventral grooves. Accordion-like folds of skin and blubber on the underside of rorqual whales, from the tip of the lower jaw all the way down to the stomach. These folds expand and allow the whale to engulf a massive amount of water at once, effectively entrapping large amounts of their food (krill and small fish). When the whale closes its mouth, the ventral pleats contract, pushing water out while the prey is filtered by the baleen plates.
Vertebrae
Irregularly shaped bones that form the vertebral column or spine. Vertebrate animals were named for having a spine, compared to invertebrates, which don’t have it. The role of the spine is to protect spinal cord, as well stabilise pelvic bones and upper body, and allow movement.
Vessel
A ship or a boat. Craft used for navigation on the water.
Vocalisation
The sounds that animals, including cetaceans and pinnipeds, make to communicate. There is a multitude of different sounds used during vocalisations, such as clicks, whistles, pulses, whirrs, grunts, and “song”. Clicks and pulses are generally used in echolocation, while whistles are thought to be used for communication within a group of dolphins. Baleen whales use low frequency songs to communicate over hundreds of kilometres.
W
Welfare
Care about the well-being of animals. In the context of hunting, the animal welfare aim is to ensure the least amount of suffering and highest possible instant death rates in the hunt, while the human welfare aim is to ensure hunter safety.
Western science
Systematic approach to understanding the natural world that is rooted in using the scientific method. This involves formulating hypotheses, conducting experiments, observing outcomes, and drawing conclusions based on data. Frequently contrasted with Indigenous Knowledge.
Whale oil
Oil derived from the blubber or melon of whales. Whale oil extracted from different species has different names and uses. Sperm oil is extracted from the blubber and spermaceti of sperm whales, train oil from baleen whales, and melon oil from small toothed whales.
Whelping
Giving birth. This term is used for carnivorous species, including pinnipeds. Several species of seal travel to specific whelping grounds (or patches) to give birth.
Whiskers
Specialised, stiff, functional hairs on the face of mammals, used to feel their surrounding environment. They are longer and thicker than the rest of the animal’s fur and can even be moved independently. The whiskers of marine mammals are more sensitive than those of land mammals.
Wilderness
Area or region that is not significantly disturbed by human activity (no extensive agriculture or urban development).
Wildlife
Animal and plant species that have not been domesticated. It also includes all the organisms that live in their environments without being introduced by humans.
X
Y
Z
Zooplankton
Animals, that live in the water column but cannot actively swim against currents. While most zooplankton are tiny, like copepods, krill, and the larval stages of larger species, some are much larger, such as salps and jellies. Many species of zooplankton spend daytime in deeper water (avoiding light and predators), moving towards the surface to feed at night, in a process called vertical migration.
