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Bowhead whale

Balaena mysticetus
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  • Grønlandsslættibøka
  • Arfivik
  • Grænland hvalur
  • Flag of Norway Grønlandshval
  • Grønlandshval
Bowhead whale and calf © NOAA Fisheries

The bowhead whale lives only in the cold waters of the Arctic and sub-Arctic. They are slow swimmers, generally swimming 3-6 km/h, but can swim up to 200 km per day between feeding grounds. They are known for their complex songs during the breeding season, changing their songs often. Populations were drastically reduced by industrial whaling, but nowadays they are only occasionally hunted in the North Atlantic, and populations are increasing.

Bowhead whales are only found in the icy waters of the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions, and of all whale species they are the most adapted to this cold. A blubber layer up to 30 cm thick works as insulation and keeps their body temperature warm. They have a skull that is strong enough to break through 60 cm thick ice to make breathing holes. Because of this, their head often shows scars from the sharp ice. Unlike most other whale species, they have no dorsal fin that could be in the way when swimming underneath the ice.

Large head of bowhead whale © Fernando Ugarte

Finding out the age of a bowhead whale is challenging. A whale caught in Alaska carried parts of a harpoon in its shoulder bone, of a type that hadn’t been used for over a century—meaning the whale was at least 115 years old! A more standard way is analysing a chemical compound in the whale’s eye lens, the aspartic acid. It transforms from one form to another at a specific rate throughout the whale’s life, which allows us to calculate its age. Recent studies estimate that bowhead whales can live well over 200 years (as local hunters have known for a long time).

Brestingar hjá grønlandshvali © Olga Shpak

The situation of bowhead whales

Bowhead whales are not present in Faroese waters.

The situation of bowhead whales in Greenland

Bowhead whale populations were severely reduced by centuries of industrial whaling. Today, the Eastern Canada–West Greenland of bowhead whales stock is increasing, and there are signs of growth in the East Greenland–Svalbard–Barents Sea stock. On the Greenlandic National Red List the East Canada-West Greenland stock as “Near Threatened“, and the East Greenland-Svalbard-Barents Sea stock as “Vulnerable”.

Subsistence hunting by Inuit communities in Canada, Greenland, and Alaska continues under strict regulations. In Greenland, the East Canada-West Greenland stock is the only one currently hunted. Annual quotas are set domestically in Canada and by the International Whaling Commission for Greenland and Alaska.

The situation of bowhead whales in Iceland

Bowhead whales could be present in waters north of Iceland. Bowhead whales are protected in Iceland.

The situation of bowhead whales in Norway

Bowhead whales are protected in Norway, and therefore the East Greenland-Svalbard-Barents Sea, believed to not be very numerous is not hunted.

The situation of bowhead whales in Denmark

Bowhead whales are not present in Danish waters.

Adult length 18 metres
Adult weight 75,000 kg
Max age >200 years
Eats zooplankton
Group size 1-3
Predators killer whales
IUCN status vulnerable (2022)
NEA abundance 8,000
Hunted in
0.2 whales/year mean 2019-2023
Play sound

Sound credit: Outi Tervo, Greenland Institute of Natural Resources

Main threats

Research

To identify individuals, scientists use markings on specific body parts of different whale species. For example, for dolphins they look at dorsal fins, for humpback whales it is the fluke. What do they use for bowhead whales?

Did you know that bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) have a remarkable defence against cancer?
These marine mammals can live for over 200 years and are also the second-largest animal, weighing more than 80,000 kilograms. And while having a large number of cells, the bowhead whale doesn't get cancer very often, something scientists call the "Peto's Paradox." While other large animals like elephants have extra genes to prevent cancer, the bowhead whale takes a different approach. They have developed cells which are able to repair damaged DNA. Scientists have also identified two proteins, CIRBP and RPA2, that are present in high levels in bowhead whale cells and help with the DNA repair process (Firsanov et al., 2023). The study involved experiments conducted on cells from bowhead whales, humans, cows, and mice. The researchers found that bowhead whale cells excel at repairing double-strand breaks in DNA, which is a severe type of DNA damage. Compared to other mammals, the repair process in bowhead whales' cells is both highly efficient and accurate. These findings hold significant promise for cancer research and potential treatments. Understanding how animals like bowhead whales can naturally fend off cancer provides valuable insights that could be translated into effective therapies for humans. Interestingly, yawning in aquatic species, like belugas, is intriguing because they don't breathe through their mouths, as fully aquatic mammals have a separate trachea and esophagus. Nevertheless, the open mouth behaviour displayed by beluga whales during certain events has been described as "yawn-like" due to its resemblance to yawning in terrestrial mammals. But why do belugas yawn, and what triggers this behaviour? The function of yawning in animals, including belugas, remains somewhat mysterious. In humans, yawning has been associated with various factors such as sleepiness, respiration and circulatory needs, boredom, arousal, empathy, and thermoregulation. The observation of Ames (2022) raises questions about whether belugas, with their social and imitative abilities, may have the capacity to imitate human motor movements. Read the full observation by Ames (2022) here: https://doi.org/10.1578/AM.48.6.2022.495
Did you know that scientists have discovered a new, easier way to estimate the age of whales? Read the full study by Firsanov et al. (2023) here:
It is difficult to accurately estimate the age of wild animals, especially long-lived species such as killer or bowhead whales. Traditionally, scientists have used methods such as counting growth rings in teeth or ear plugs to estimate a whale’s age. However, the types of tissues can only be obtained by dead animals. By taking small tissue biopsies of whales’ skin, researchers can now determine their age more accurately and with less invasive methods. Therefore, they make use of the "epigenetic clock" by studying a specific modification of DNA called methylation. The idea is, that methylation patterns predictably change with age and by analysing these patterns, the individual’s age can be estimated. Parsons et al. (2023) estimated ages of southern resident killer whales and bowhead whales within 2–3 years of their known chronological age using skin samples of stranded and alive whales from the last 40 years. By accurately determining whale ages, scientists gain vital insights into their life history, population dynamics, and age-related diseases. This knowledge plays a crucial role in conservation efforts and understanding changes in their environment, prey availability, and overall well-being. The discovery of the Charlotte whale, as the Vermont’s fossil is known, helped to explain the geology and glacial history of North America. Thanks to this and other marine fossils and sediments found in the region, we now know that portions of Ontario and Quebec (Canada) and the US states of Vermont and New York were not so long ago covered by the Champlain Sea, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that once extended from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Great Lakes. The Champlain Sea was short-lived and formed when the ice retreaded from this area 13,000 years ago, leaving a deep basin that was filled with water from the Atlantic Ocean and became populated by marine mammals such as belugas, fin whales, bowhead whales and walruses. Free from the pressure of tons of ice, the earth crust slowly rebounded until, 3000 years later, the land was again above the sea level, the connection with the Atlantic Ocean closed and the basin transformed into the freshwater river valley it is today.
Did you know that bowhead whales hold the record for the largest mouth in the world?
These colossal marine mammals can reach a length of approximately 18 metres, with their heads accounting for about one third of their total size. As a result, their mouths can span an impressive 5 metres in length, 4 metres in height, and 2.5 metres in width, accommodating baleen plates—the fibrous filtering structures that give baleen whales their name—that are up to 4 metres long. This giant oral apparatus serves as a remarkable feeding system. Bowhead whales employ a methodical approach called ram feeding, slowly swimming through the water with their mouths open. As they do so, water enters their expansive mouths and courses through the baleen plates, effectively trapping small crustaceans on the fringes of the plates. To swallow their filtered catch, whales use their tongues to move the food from the baleen plates to their throats. Each foraging bout can result in the filtration of an astonishing 2,000 tons of water and prey. This adaptation showcases the remarkable efficiency and scale of the bowhead whale's feeding mechanism, allowing them to sustain their massive size in their oceanic habitats.
❓ Quiz Question: Which animal holds the longest-lived-mammal title?

✔️ Answer: The bowhead whale!

Weapon fragments from the 19th century used for whale hunting were discovered in bowhead whales in Alaska in 2007. Combined with an age-estimation technique that analyses proteins present in the eye lenses of these creatures, scientists revealed that some bowheads may live for more than 200 years! This information is not just fascinating: it is also crucial for the conservation of these great creatures. Marine mammals in the high north face heightened challenges due to climate change and human activities. Comparing longevity in the past and the present helps us evaluate how these threats affect them today.

Interestingly, yawning in aquatic species, like belugas, is intriguing because they don't breathe through their mouths, as fully aquatic mammals have a separate trachea and esophagus. Nevertheless, the open mouth behaviour displayed by beluga whales during certain events has been described as "yawn-like" due to its resemblance to yawning in terrestrial mammals. But why do belugas yawn, and what triggers this behaviour? The function of yawning in animals, including belugas, remains somewhat mysterious. In humans, yawning has been associated with various factors such as sleepiness, respiration and circulatory needs, boredom, arousal, empathy, and thermoregulation. The observation of Ames (2022) raises questions about whether belugas, with their social and imitative abilities, may have the capacity to imitate human motor movements. Read the full observation by Ames (2022) here: https://doi.org/10.1578/AM.48.6.2022.495

GUARDNA Cards

Marine Mammals

Stakeholders

Uses

Threats

Zooplankton

Animals, that live in the water column but cannot actively swim against currents. While most zooplankton are tiny, like copepods, krill, and the larval stages of larger species, some are much larger, such as salps and jellies. Many species of zooplankton spend daytime in deeper water (avoiding light and predators), moving towards the surface to feed at night, in a process called vertical migration.

Whelping

Giving birth. This term is used for carnivorous species, including pinnipeds. Several species of seal travel to specific whelping grounds (or patches) to give birth.

Tubercles

Large raised “bumps” on the edges of humpback whale flippers. These where shown to make their flippers more hydrodynamic, which helps explain how humpback whales are so agile. Engineers have copied the tubercle effect to improve aerodynamic and hydrodynamic technology.

Subsistence whaling

Not intended to maximise profit but to fulfil the subsistence needs of an individual or community. Compare with commercial whaling.

Sonar beam

Sound energy that is emitted in a cone or fan shape from the sound source, to detect objects the sound will bounce back from.

Sonar tag

An sensor that uses sonar technology to detect what is in the immediate environment of the animal on which it is placed. Putting a sonar tag on a seal, for instance, would reveal the size and movements of the prey it targets, whether it interacts with human-made objects, and so on.

Sonar

Technology that uses sound to detect objects and navigate, usually in the water. It uses the same principles as echolocation in animals, sending out waves of sound that bounce back when they hit an object. Vessels may use sonar to ”see” changes in seafloor depth or find schools of fish. Naval sonar is used to detect submarines.

Seismic exploration

A way to map what lies underground using sound waves and how they are reflected or absorbed by different materials, usually to detect deposits of oil and gas. To explore what is under the seafloor, a ship blasts compressed air (using what is called a seismic airgun) into the water, creating loud sound waves. Part of the sound is absorbed by the different materials underneath the seabed, while the rest is reflected back towards the ship. The shape and intensity of the sound waves that returns indicates what type of materials there are at different depths.

Real-time whale detection system

A setup that detects the presence of whales in a given area at the time they are there and alerts users about them immediately, rather than collecting data for several hours/days/months to be processed later.

Quota

A fixed maximum quantity of a resource that each person or group is allowed to take. For instance, the maximum number of minke whales that Norway and Iceland can hunt each year is their minke whale quota.  

Protection

Efforts and regulations to mitigate harmful impacts on the environment (such as laws that prevent pollution). Protection goes hand in hand with conservation, which refers to maintaining biodiversity through sustainable resource use. In some cases, the only way to protect an ecosystem is through preservation, which forbids humans from using it as a resource. In the context of marine mammal hunting, a protected species means that hunting it is forbidden.  

Plankton

Organisms that float in the water column without strong swimming abilities, i.e., that cannot propel themselves for large distances or against currents. Planktonic life includes phytoplankton, which lives in the surface layers where there is light to photosynthesise, and zooplankton, which can live throughout the water column.

Pile-driving

Hammering long columns of steel, wood, or concrete into the seafloor to create supports for structures like piers, bridges, and wind turbines.

Phytoplankton

Small (generally microscopic) bacteria, protists, and plants that live floating in the water column rather than attached to a surface like the seabed. The base of all marine food webs.

Navigation

Planning a route and moving towards a target while avoiding obstacles.

Larva

(Plural: larvae) Intermediate stage in the development of many animal species, between egg and adulthood. Larvae are often a very different shape from the adults of their species.

Simplified crab life cycle, showing two different larval stages, the zoea and megalopa, that take place before the juvenile and adult phases.

Kelp forest

Important underwater habitats in arctic and subarctic waters. They are large congregations of kelp—a type of brown algae that grows many metres tall—that provide food and safety for many marine species and are recognised as one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth.

Invertebrate

Any animal that doesn’t have a backbone (vertebral column), such as insects, molluscs, worms, sponges, and many, many more. Animals that do have a backbone are called vertebrates—and that list is much shorter.

Intensity (sound)

A sound source in the water causes movement of the water molecules with a certain amount of energy that flows away from the source—this is how sound travels. Acoustic intensity is the amount of this energy that passes through another area of water, in other words, how loud the sound is when it reaches you or another object.

Head-butting

Aggressive or play behaviour in which two animals hit each other head-to-head. This is often seen in goats, sheep, and deer.

Fission-fusion society

A form of social organisation in which groups merge and split up depending on the time of day, year, or activity. Members of a fission-fusion society have few or no stable connections with other members, that is, they don’t always stay together.

Evolution

Changes in the characteristics of a species through the process of natural selection. Organisms with the best suited adaptations for their current environmental conditions pass on their genes to the next generation, and this can often lead to very specialised abilities and behaviours.

Ecology

“The study of relationships between living things and their environment” (British Ecological Society). Marine mammal ecology studies the behaviour, movement patterns, distribution, and abundance of these species as it is influenced by the physical characteristics of the ocean, the availability of food, and human activities.

Detritus

Non-living biological material (organic matter) that is created from decomposing organisms, discarded animal parts like exoskeletons, or feces. In the ocean, detritus sinking slowly through the water column is called marine snow, which is crucial for transporting nutrients from surface waters to deeper zones.

Crustaceans

Primarily aquatic group of arthropods (often with shells or “crusts”), which includes crabs, shrimp, krill, and barnacles, among many others.

Bradycardia

Extremely slow heartrate. Slowing down the heart and pumping blood slower through the body is a way to conserve oxygen when an animal is diving for a long time. Blue whale hearts can beat as slow as two times per minute (Goldbogen et al. 2019)!

Bottom trawling

Using a type of trawl that is dragged along the sea floor to collect benthic species. Because the net is weighted down with heavy beams, this fishing method often breaks or crushes plants and animals that are attached to the seabed.

Biodegradable

A material that can by broken down and returned to the environment through natural processes, such as being consumed by fungi or bacteria.

Benthos

In marine ecosystems, all the organisms that live on, in, or near the sea floor (benthic zone). These often have benthic adaptations, such as flattened bodies or the ability to withstand huge pressure.

Autotroph

Organisms that make their own food through photosynthesis or chemical synthesis, also called primary producers. Plants, algae, and many bacteria, for instance, are autotrophic.

Hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • beitt hugtökum og heitum í náttúruvísindum við fjölbreyttar aðstæður,

Miðlun:

Nemandi getur:

  • kynnt niðurstöður rannsókna, tekið þátt í gagnrýnum umræðum og metið gildi þess að vísindalegum upplýsingum sé miðlað á skýran hátt,

Vistkerfi

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt þarfir lífvera og rætt á gagnrýninn hátt um þróun ólíkra vistkerfa,

Líffræðileg fjölbreytni

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt gildi líffræðilegrar fjölbreytni og tengsl við velferð manna, dýravernd, sjálfbæra þróun og vistkerfin,

Upplifun af náttúrunni

Nemandi getur:

  • gert grein fyrir tengslum sínum við aðrar lífverur og eigin athugunum á hegðun þeirra,

Hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • beitt hugtökum og heitum í náttúruvísindum við fjölbreyttar aðstæður,

Athuganir:

Nemandi getur:

  • framkvæmt, skráð og safnað upplýsingum út frá athugunum og mælingum úti og inni, samkvæmt fyrirmælum og á eigin vegum,

Miðlun:

Nemandi getur:

  • kynnt niðurstöður rannsókna, tekið þátt í gagnrýnum umræðum og metið gildi þess að vísindalegum upplýsingum sé miðlað á skýran hátt,

Hringrásir efna og orku

Nemandi getur:

  • lýst hringrás efna og orku, náttúrulegum ferlum og flæði orku í náttúrunni,

Þróun

Nemandi getur:

  • fjallað um þróun lífvera og tekið dæmi um hvernig lífverur hafa aðlagast umhverfi sínu,

Varmi

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt mismunandi varmaflutning og samspil varma og hitastigs,

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • tekið virkan þátt í samræðum um stærðfræðileg viðfangsefni
  • spurt spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Táknmál og hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • umskráð verkefni úr daglegu lífi og notað til þess táknmál og hugtök stærðfræðinnar

Þrautalausnir

Nemandi getur:

  • notað fjölbreyttar aðferðir við leit að lausnum, t.d. myndræna framsetningu

Rannsóknarvinna

Nemandi getur:

  • unnið í samvinnu að stærðfræðilegum rannsóknum með því að skipuleggja og velja viðeigandi aðferðir til að kanna tilgátu eða spurningu

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • tekið virkan þátt í samræðum um stærðfræðileg viðfangsefni
  • spurt spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Táknmál og hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • umskráð verkefni úr daglegu lífi og notað til þess táknmál og hugtök stærðfræðinnar

Þrautalausnir

Nemandi getur:

  • notað fjölbreyttar aðferðir við leit að lausnum, t.d. vinna sig til baka til að leysa þraut

Rannsóknarvinna

Nemandi getur:

  • unnið í samvinnu að stærðfræðilegum rannsóknum með því að skipuleggja og velja viðeigandi aðferðir til að kanna tilgátu eða spurningu
  • sett fram rannsóknarspurningu sem byggir á stærðfræðilegri hugsun og hægt er að vinna úr með t.d. mælingum, líkindum eða öðrum útreikningum
  • sett fram tilgátur um stærðfræðileg efni sem byggja á athugunum

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • tekið virkan þátt í samræðum um stærðfræðileg viðfangsefni
  • spurt gagnrýninna spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Táknmál og hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • umskráð verkefni úr daglegu lífi og notað til þess táknmál og hugtök stærðfræðinnar

Þrautalausnir

Nemandi getur:

  • notað fjölbreyttar aðferðir við leit að lausnum, t.d. leita að mynstri eða reglu

Rannsóknarvinna

Nemandi getur:

  • unnið í samvinnu að stærðfræðilegum rannsóknum með því að skipuleggja og velja viðeigandi aðferðir til að kanna tilgátu eða spurningu

Hnitakerfi

Nemandi getur:

  • notað gröf beinna lína til að greina raunveruleg sambönd, t.d. verð eftir magni, hraða eða tímalengd og finna lausnir á einföldum jöfnum

Jöfnur og ójöfnur

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt lausnir sínar með því að prófa þær og setja í raunverulegt samhengi

Jöfnur og ójöfnur

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt lausnir sínar með því að prófa þær og setja í raunverulegt samhengi

Jöfnur og ójöfnur

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt lausnir sínar með því að prófa þær og setja í raunverulegt samhengi

Gagnavinnsla

Nemandi getur:

  • sagt frá helstu niðurstöðum með orðum, töflum og myndritum og borið saman breytingar á flokkum, t.d. breytingar á fólksfjölda á ákveðnu svæði eftir tímabilum

Myndrit

Nemandi getur:

  • lesið úr myndritum og útskýrt hvaða upplýsingar koma fram í þeim
  • túlkað og metið upplýsingar og breytingar sem koma fram í myndritum

Gagnavinnsla

Nemandi getur:

  • dregið ályktanir af niðurstöðum sínum, t..d. áhrif farsótta, harðinda, náttúruhamfara eða breyttra atvinnuhátta á mannfjöldatölur

Myndrit

Nemandi getur:

  • lesið úr myndritum og útskýrt hvaða upplýsingar koma fram í þeim
  • túlkað og metið upplýsingar og breytingar sem koma fram í myndritum

Myndrit

Nemandi getur:

  • lesið úr myndritum og útskýrt hvaða upplýsingar koma fram í þeim
  • túlkað og metið upplýsingar og breytingar sem koma fram í myndritum

Mælieiningar

Nemandi getur:

  • skráð niðurstöður með samsettum mælieiningum, t.d. fundið hraða (km/klst.), kílóverð (kr/kg) og borið saman mismunandi hraða eða verð

Mælieiningar

Nemandi getur:

  • skráð niðurstöður með samsettum mælieiningum, t.d. fundið hraða (km/klst.), kílóverð (kr/kg) og borið saman mismunandi hraða eða verð

Hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • beitt hugtökum og heitum í náttúruvísindum við fjölbreyttar aðstæður,

Miðlun

Nemandi getur:

  • kynnt niðurstöður rannsókna, tekið þátt í gagnrýnum umræðum og metið gildi þess að vísindalegum upplýsingum sé miðlað á skýran hátt,

Kortalæsi

Nemandi getur:

  • greint, þekkt og fjallað um upplýsingar á kortum, gröfum og annars konar myndum og sett upp kort til að miðla fjölbreyttum upplýsingum,

Verkfæri og hlutbundin gögn

Nemandi getur:

  • valið og notað viðeigandi verkfæri út frá verkefni og útskýrt af hverju þau henta, t.d. vasareikni, hnitakerfi og ýmis stöðluð og óstöðluð mælitæki

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • spurt spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • spurt spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • spurt gagnrýninna spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Hnitakerfi

Nemandi getur:

  • teiknað gröf beinna lína með því að setja upp gildistöflu og skrá hnitin í hnitakerfi

Assesment

Scientific evaluation of a species, population, or stock, to determine its health status based on what is known about its abundance, demographics, genetics, distribution over time, and what disturbances it is subjected to. This tells us whether (and how much) it is at risk from ecological or anthropogenic pressures.

Athuganir:

Nemandi getur:

  • framkvæmt, skráð og safnað upplýsingum út frá athugunum og mælingum úti og inni, samkvæmt fyrirmælum og á eigin vegum,

Miðlun:

Nemandi getur:

  • kynnt niðurstöður rannsókna, tekið þátt í gagnrýnum umræðum og metið gildi þess að vísindalegum upplýsingum sé miðlað á skýran hátt,

Vísindaleg vinnubrögð

Nemandi getur:

  • sett fram vísindalega tilgátu og beitt margvíslegum vísindalegum vinnubrögðum til að kanna hana í þekkingarleit og úrvinnslu verkefna,

Líffræðileg fjölbreytni

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt gildi líffræðilegrar fjölbreytni og tengsl við velferð manna, dýravernd, sjálfbæra þróun og vistkerfin,

Náttúruauðlindir og sjálfbær nýting

Nemandi getur:

  • gert grein fyrir verndun og nýtingu náttúruauðlinda í tengslum við sjálfbæra þróun, sjálfbæra nýtingu og rýnt í eigin neysluvenjur,

Kortalæsi

Nemandi getur:

  • greint, þekkt og fjallað um upplýsingar á kortum, gröfum og annars konar myndum og sett upp kort til að miðla fjölbreyttum upplýsingum,

Samfélög

Nemandi getur:

  • greint og borið saman ólíka menningarheima og samfélög, trúarbrögð, hefðir og siði, aðstæður og líf fólks,

Auðlindir

Nemandi getur:

  • varpað ljósi á hvers vegna sjálfbær nýting auðlinda er mikilvæg fyrir samfélög og í hnattrænu samhengi,

Neyslusamfélagið

Nemandi getur:

  • varpað ljósi á neyslusamfélag nútímans, ferli hráefna frá öflun til eyðingar og hugmyndum um mikilvægi hringrásarhagkerfis,

Sjálfbær þróun

Nemandi getur:

  • sýnt fram á skilning á sjálfbærri þróun og þýðingu hennar fyrir umhverfi, samfélag og efnahagslíf og lífsskilyrði alls lífs á jörðinni,

Verkfæri og hlutbundin gögn

Nemandi getur:

  • valið og notað viðeigandi verkfæri út frá verkefni og útskýrt af hverju þau henta, t.d. vasareikni, hnitakerfi og ýmis stöðluð og óstöðluð mælitæki

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • tekið virkan þátt í samræðum um stærðfræðileg viðfangsefni
  • spurt spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Táknmál og hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • umskráð verkefni úr daglegu lífi og notað til þess táknmál og hugtök stærðfræðinnar

Þrautalausnir

Nemandi getur:

  • notað fjölbreyttar aðferðir við leit að lausnum, t.d. myndræna framsetningu

Rannsóknarvinna

Nemandi getur:

  • unnið sjálfstætt að stærðfræðilegum rannsóknum með því að skipuleggja og velja viðeigandi aðferðir til að kanna tilgátu eða spurningu
  • unnið í samvinnu að stærðfræðilegum rannsóknum með því að skipuleggja og velja viðeigandi aðferðir til að kanna tilgátu eða spurningu
  • sett fram rannsóknarspurningu sem byggir á stærðfræðilegri hugsun og hægt er að vinna úr með t.d. mælingum, líkindum eða öðrum útreikningum

Kynningar

Nemandi getur:

  • undirbúið og flutt kynningu fyrir hóp þar sem hann sýnir og útskýrir stærðfræðivinnu sína

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • tekið virkan þátt í samræðum um stærðfræðileg viðfangsefni
  • spurt spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Táknmál og hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • umskráð verkefni úr daglegu lífi og notað til þess táknmál og hugtök stærðfræðinnar

Þrautalausnir

Nemandi getur:

  • notað fjölbreyttar aðferðir við leit að lausnum, t.d. vinna sig til baka til að leysa þraut

Rannsóknarvinna

Nemandi getur:

  • sett fram rannsóknarspurningu sem byggir á stærðfræðilegri hugsun og hægt er að vinna úr með t.d. mælingum, líkindum eða öðrum útreikningum
  • sett fram tilgátur um stærðfræðileg efni sem byggja á athugunum

Kynningar

Nemandi getur:

  • undirbúið og flutt kynningu fyrir hóp þar sem hann sýnir og útskýrir stærðfræðivinnu sína

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • tekið virkan þátt í samræðum um stærðfræðileg viðfangsefni
  • spurt gagnrýninna spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Táknmál og hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • umskráð verkefni úr daglegu lífi og notað til þess táknmál og hugtök stærðfræðinnar

Þrautalausnir

Nemandi getur:

  • notað fjölbreyttar aðferðir við leit að lausnum, t.d. leita að mynstri eða reglu

Rannsóknarvinna

Nemandi getur:

  • unnið sjálfstætt að stærðfræðilegum rannsóknum með því að skipuleggja og velja viðeigandi aðferðir til að kanna tilgátu eða spurningu
  • unnið í samvinnu að stærðfræðilegum rannsóknum með því að skipuleggja og velja viðeigandi aðferðir til að kanna tilgátu eða spurningu
  • sett fram rannsóknarspurningu sem kallar á greiningu gagna eða líkana og tengir við fyrri þekkingu
  • sett fram tilgátur um stærðfræðileg efni sem byggja á athugunum og rökstuðningi

Kynningar

Nemandi getur:

  • undirbúið og flutt kynningu fyrir hóp þar sem hann sýnir og útskýrir stærðfræðivinnu sína

Hnitakerfi

Nemandi getur:

  • notað gröf beinna lína til að greina raunveruleg sambönd, t.d. verð eftir magni, hraða eða tímalengd og finna lausnir á einföldum jöfnum

Jöfnur og ójöfnur

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt lausnir sínar með því að prófa þær og setja í raunverulegt samhengi

Jöfnur og ójöfnur

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt lausnir sínar með því að prófa þær og setja í raunverulegt samhengi

Jöfnur og ójöfnur

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt lausnir sínar með því að prófa þær og setja í raunverulegt samhengi

Gagnavinnsla

Nemandi getur:

  • nýtt sér töluleg gögn úr tilbúnu gagnasafni til að finna ákveðnar upplýsingar, t.d. gögn hjá Hagstofu Íslands
  • sagt frá helstu niðurstöðum með orðum, töflum og myndritum og borið saman breytingar á flokkum, t.d. breytingar á fólksfjölda á ákveðnu svæði eftir tímabilum

Myndrit

Nemandi getur:

  • lesið úr myndritum og útskýrt hvaða upplýsingar koma fram í þeim
  • túlkað og metið upplýsingar og breytingar sem koma fram í myndritum

Gagnavinnsla

Nemandi getur:

  • nýtt sér gögn úr tilbúnu gagnasafni til að finna ákveðnar upplýsingar
  • dregið ályktanir af niðurstöðum sínum, t..d. áhrif farsótta, harðinda, náttúruhamfara eða breyttra atvinnuhátta á mannfjöldatölur

Myndrit

Nemandi getur:

  • lesið úr myndritum og útskýrt hvaða upplýsingar koma fram í þeim
  • túlkað og metið upplýsingar og breytingar sem koma fram í myndritum

Gagnavinnsla

Nemandi getur:

  • nýtt sér gögn úr tilbúnu gagnasafni til að finna ákveðnar upplýsingar

Myndrit

Nemandi getur:

  • lesið úr myndritum og útskýrt hvaða upplýsingar koma fram í þeim
  • túlkað og metið upplýsingar og breytingar sem koma fram í myndritum

Mælieiningar

Nemandi getur:

  • skráð niðurstöður með samsettum mælieiningum, t.d. fundið hraða (km/klst.), kílóverð (kr/kg) og borið saman mismunandi hraða eða verð

Mælieiningar

Nemandi getur:

  • skráð niðurstöður með samsettum mælieiningum, t.d. fundið hraða (km/klst.), kílóverð (kr/kg) og borið saman mismunandi hraða eða verð

Mælieiningar

Nemandi getur:

  • beitt samsettum mælieiningum við stærðfræðileg viðfangsefni, t.d. við útreikninga á hraða, tíma, vegalengd, fermetraverði, efnismagni eða meðalhraða, og túlkað niðurstöður í samræmi við samhengi

Eftir loknan 9. flokk dugir næmingurin:

  • at eyðmerkja eitt stað á jørðini við longd og breidd 

Landafrøðiligar keldur og amboð

Næmingurin dugir:

  • at lesa signaturar (tekn/merki) og hava kunnleika til skipanina við longdar- og breiddarstigum, umframt kunnleika til tíðarsonur, miðkring, vendikring, støddarlutfall, hæddar- og dýpislinjur, umframt at kenna høvuðsprojektiónirnar 

Náttúran

Næmingurin dugir:

  • at lýsa samspælið í náttúruni millum livandi verur og teirra umhvørvi

Alisfrøði og evnafrøði 7.-9. floksstig

Málið við undirvísingini er, at næmingurin við støði í kjarnaøkjunum dugir:

  • at nýta hóskandi eindir í sambandi við útrokningar 
  • at eksperimentera, eygleiða og finna møguligar loysnir við støði í givnum greiðsluevni 

Matur og umhvørvi

Næmingurin skal duga:

  • at meta um matvørur við atliti at tíðar- og orkunýtslu
  • at samanbera og meta um dygdina á heimagjørdum matvørum í mun til  ídnaðarframleiddar matvørur
  • atl gerast tilvitaður um hvørja ávirkan valið av matvørum og nýtsluvørum hevur á heimliga og alheims umhvørvið

Náttúran

Næmingurin dugir:

  • at meta um, hvørt menniskjan brúkar náttúruna á burðardyggan hátt
  • at leggja til rættis, fremja og og eftirmeta einfaldar kanningar og royndir í ymiskum búøkjum og í starvsstovu

Næmingurin skal duga:

  • At lesa og endurgeva einfaldar hugtaksmyndlar. At knýta hugtaksmyndlar til kvantitativa og kvalitativa vitan.

Málið við undirvísingini er, at næmingurin dugir:

  • at skapa og gjøgnumføra støddfrøðilig modell av veruligum trupulleikum 
  • at skifta millum at orða seg á støddfrøðimáli og á gerandismáli 

Málið við undirvísingini er, at næmingurin dugir:

  • at meta um støddfrøðiligt arbeiði og loysnir bæði hjá sær sjálvum og hjá øðrum

Málið við undirvísingini er, at næmingurin dugir:

  • at brúka støddfrøði til at gera kanningar 
  • kritiskt at tulka og meta um, tá ið onnur brúka støddfrøði, og skilja, hvussu støddfrøði kann verða brúkt til at bera fram ymisk sjónarmið 

Alisfrøði og evnafrøði 7-9

Málið við undirvísingini er, at næmingurin við støði í kjarnaøkjunum dugir:

  • við dømum at miðla og vísa innlit í alisfrøðilig og evnafrøðilig evni 
  • at nýta hóskandi eindir í sambandi við útrokningar 
  • at eksperimentera, eygleiða og finna møguligar loysnir við støði í givnum greiðsluevni 
  • at seta spurningar og gera hypotesur um alisfrøðilig og evnafrøðilig fyribrigdi, eyðmerkja bundnar og óbundnar variablar (broytilig viðurskifti) og savna inn dátur til tess at finna svar 
  • at seta orð á, hvussu alisfrøðilig og evnafrøðilig fyribrigdi síggjast/verða nýtt í gerandis- og samfelagshøpi 

Næmingurin dugir:

  • at skráseta og viðgera dátur og eygleiðingar, og greiða frá royndum, bæði munnliga og skrivliga

Náttúran

Næmingurin dugir:

  • at lýsa samspælið í náttúruni millum livandi verur og teirra umhvørvi
  • at leggja til rættis, fremja og og eftirmeta einfaldar kanningar og royndir í ymiskum búøkjum og í starvsstovu

Ílegurnar

Næmingurin dugir:

  • menningarlæruna í høvuðsheitum, herundir fyribrigdi so sum kapping, tillaging, úrbregði, frábrigdi, avbyrging og úrveljing
Náttúran Næmingurin dugir:
  • at nýta kunningartøkni at leita eftir upplýsingum at finna lívfrøðiligar loysnir
  • at geva dømi um nýggjari lívfrøðiliga gransking, sum hevur havt týdning fyri viðurskiftini hjá menniskjum.

Málið við undirvísingini er, at næmingurin dugir:

  • at skapa og gjøgnumføra støddfrøðilig modell av veruligum trupulleikum 
  • at skifta millum at orða seg á støddfrøðimáli og á gerandismáli 

Málið við undirvísingini er, at næmingurin dugir:

  • at meta um støddfrøðiligt arbeiði og loysnir bæði hjá sær sjálvum og hjá øðrum

Málið við undirvísingini er, at næmingurin dugir:

  • at brúka støddfrøði til at gera kanningar 
  • kritiskt at tulka og meta um, tá ið onnur brúka støddfrøði, og skilja, hvussu støddfrøði kann verða brúkt til at bera fram ymisk sjónarmið

Lívfrøði 7-9

Náttúran

Næmingurin dugir:

  • í høvuðsheitum at lýsa eina vistskipan
  • at lýsa samspælið í náttúruni millum livandi verur og teirra umhvørvi
  • at greiða frá føðiketum og føðinetum

Ílegurnar

Næmingurin dugir:

  • menningarlæruna í høvuðsheitum, herundir fyribrigdi so sum kapping, tillaging, úrbregði, frábrigdi, avbyrging og úrveljing

Náttúran

Næmingurin dugir:

  • at greiða frá natúrligum og mannagjørdum broytingum í vistskipanum og avleiddu ávirkanunum á lívfrøðiliga fjølbroytnið

Biologi (BIO01‑02)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planleggje og gjennomføre undersøkingar, samle, behandle og tolke data, og presentere resultat og funn
  • utforske kva konsekvensar endringar i klima og arealutnytting kan ha for det biologiske mangfaldet, og drøfte tiltak for ei meir berekraftig forvaltning

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske ei biologisk problemstilling, analysere innsamla data, argumentere for val av metodar og drøfte resultat og funn

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • drøfte konsekvenser av klimaendringer for enkeltmennesker, samfunn og økosystem, og vurdere bærekraftige løsninger for hvordan enkeltmennesker og samfunn kan redusere og tilpasse seg klimaendringer i nåtid og framtid 

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • reflektere over eigen ressursbruk og ressursbruken i Noreg i eit globalt og berekraftig perspektiv 
  • utforske kva endringar i klimaet har å seie for natur og samfunn lokalt, regionalt eller globalt 

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planlegge og gjennomføre et selvstendig arbeid med reelle datasett knyttet til naturvitenskapelige temaer og forhold, og analysere og presentere funn

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planlegge og gjennomføre et selvstendig arbeid med reelle datasett knyttet til samfunnsøkonomiske temaer og forhold, og analysere og presentere funn 

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske, analysere og drøfte dagsaktuelle problemstillinger knyttet til bærekraft og fordeling

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • gjøre rede for sammenhengen mellom ressurser, lokalisering av økonomisk aktivitet, globalisering og bærekraftig utvikling, og drøfte årsaker og konsekvenser av dette på ulike geografiske nivåer 
  • reflektere over hvordan lokale og globale forskjeller i levekår oppstår, og bruke utviklingsteorier til å drøfte ulike handlingsalternativer for utvikling av samfunn 

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • drøfte korleis personleg økonomi, kommersiell påverknad og forbruk påverkar enkeltpersonar, grupper og samfunnet 

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • drøfte sammenhenger mellom sosiale prosesser og sosial ulikhet på individ- og samfunnsnivå, og muligheter for å skape bærekraftige samfunn 

Biologi (BIO01‑02)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planleggje og gjennomføre undersøkingar, samle, behandle og tolke data, og presentere resultat og funn
  • utforske samanhengar mellom anatomi og fysiologi og gjere greie for prinsippa for livsprosessane i organismar 
  • utforske abiotiske og biotiske faktorar i eit økosystem, drøfte samanhengar som forklarer det biologiske mangfaldet og reflekter over naturens eigenverdi
  • utforske kva konsekvensar endringar i klima og arealutnytting kan ha for det biologiske mangfaldet, og drøfte tiltak for ei meir berekraftig forvaltning

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske ei biologisk problemstilling, analysere innsamla data, argumentere for val av metodar og drøfte resultat og funn

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planlegge og gjennomføre forsøk, analysere data og trekke konklusjoner
  • forstå begrepet temperatur og forklare hvordan tilført varme til et system fører til temperaturendring i dette systemet

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planlegge og gjennomføre et selvstendig arbeid med reelle datasett knyttet til naturvitenskapelige temaer og forhold, og analysere og presentere funn

Biologi (BIO01‑02)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planleggje og gjennomføre undersøkingar, samle, behandle og tolke data, og presentere resultat og funn
  • utforske abiotiske og biotiske faktorar i eit økosystem, drøfte samanhengar som forklarer det biologiske mangfaldet og reflekter over naturens eigenverdi
  • utforske kva konsekvensar endringar i klima og arealutnytting kan ha for det biologiske mangfaldet, og drøfte tiltak for ei meir berekraftig forvaltning

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og dokumentere artsmangfald gjennom feltarbeid, drøfte resultat og funn og vurdere korleis artane er tilpassa økosystemet dei lever i
  • gjere greie for energistraum og sentrale stoffkrinsløp

Biologi (BIO01‑02)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planleggje og gjennomføre undersøkingar, samle, behandle og tolke data, og presentere resultat og funn
  • utforske abiotiske og biotiske faktorar i eit økosystem, drøfte samanhengar som forklarer det biologiske mangfaldet og reflekter over naturens eigenverdi
  • utforske kva konsekvensar endringar i klima og arealutnytting kan ha for det biologiske mangfaldet, og drøfte tiltak for ei meir berekraftig forvaltning

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og dokumentere artsmangfald gjennom feltarbeid, drøfte resultat og funn og vurdere korleis artane er tilpassa økosystemet dei lever i

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • drøfte konsekvenser av klimaendringer for enkeltmennesker, samfunn og økosystem, og vurdere bærekraftige løsninger for hvordan enkeltmennesker og samfunn kan redusere og tilpasse seg klimaendringer i nåtid og framtid 

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og presentere geografiske forhold og prosessar ved å bruke ulike kjelder, inkludert kart
  • utforske kva endringar i klimaet har å seie for natur og samfunn lokalt, regionalt eller globalt

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planlegge og gjennomføre et selvstendig arbeid med reelle datasett knyttet til naturvitenskapelige temaer og forhold, og analysere og presentere funn

Overgrazed kelp forest

 Sea urchins are one of the species that feed on kelp. When the population of sea urchins grow uncontrollably, due to their predators being removed from the food web, they overfeed on these forests and cause them to disappear, destroying the entire ecosystem. Once the kelp is gone, it is replaced by other algal species that don’t have the same function as kelp.

(A) Healthy sugar kelp forest along the southern coast of Norway © K. Filbee-Dexter (B) Once kelp forest, now the seafloor is covered by a dense carpet of turf algae and rare kelp plant © T. Wernberg

Naturfag (NAT01‑04)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • analysere og bruke innsamlede data til å lage forklaringer, drøfte forklaringene i lys av relevant teori og vurdere kvaliteten på egne og andres utforskinger 
  • gi eksempler på dagsaktuell forskning og drøfte hvordan ny kunnskap genereres gjennom samarbeid og kritisk tilnærming til eksisterende kunnskap

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • bruke, forklare og lage formler uttrykt med ord og symboler med utgangspunkt i en praktisk problemstilling  

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • bearbeide, analysere og kritisk granske innhentede data alene og sammen med andre

Ideer og praktisk forskning (FIP01‑02)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og drøfte egne og andres ideer og problemstillinger, og formulere spørsmål og hypoteser som grunnlag for videre undersøkelser
  • bearbeide, analysere og kritisk granske innhentede data alene og sammen med andre

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og reflektere over forskjeller og likheter mellom egne og andre menneskers kulturer, holdninger og levemåter i dialog med mennesker i andre land
  • drøfte etiske problemstillinger som gjelder menneskerettigheter, miljø eller forskjeller i levekår og utforske tiltak som kan bidra til å løse disse problemene

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • lage og løyse problem som omhandlar samansette måleiningar
  • lage, løyse og forklare likningar knytte til praktiske situasjonar

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og argumentere for korleis framstillingar av tal og data kan brukast for å fremje ulike synspunk

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • lage, løyse og forklare likningssett knytte til praktiske situasjonar
  • modellere situasjonar knytte til reelle datasett, presentere resultata og argumentere for at modellane er gyldige

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • bruke, forklare og lage formler uttrykt med ord og symboler med utgangspunkt i en praktisk problemstilling
  • tolke og diskutere statistiske framstillinger knyttet til bærekraftig utvikling

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske klimaavtrykket til matvarer og gjere greie for korleis matval og matforbruk kan påverke miljøet, klimaet og matsikkerheita

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • analysere og bruke innsamlede data til å lage forklaringer, drøfte forklaringene i lys av relevant teori og vurdere kvaliteten på egne og andres utforskinger
  • gi eksempler på dagsaktuell forskning og drøfte hvordan ny kunnskap genereres gjennom samarbeid og kritisk tilnærming til eksisterende kunnskap

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • beskrive ulike dimensjonar ved berekraftig utvikling og korleis dei påverkar kvarandre, og presentere tiltak for meir berekraftige samfunn

Naturfag (NAT01‑04)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • stille spørsmål og lage hypoteser om naturfaglige fenomener, identifisere avhengige og uavhengige variabler og samle data for å finne svar 
  • utforske sammenhenger mellom abiotiske og biotiske faktorer i et økosystem og diskutere hvordan energi og materie omdannes i kretsløp

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • lage, løyse og forklare likningar knytte til praktiske situasjonar

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • stille spørsmål og lage hypoteser om naturfaglige fenomener, identifisere avhengige og uavhengige variabler og samle data for å finne svar
  • analysere og bruke innsamlede data til å lage forklaringer, drøfte forklaringene i lys av relevant teori og vurdere kvaliteten på egne og andres utforskinger
  • gi eksempler på dagsaktuell forskning og drøfte hvordan ny kunnskap genereres gjennom samarbeid og kritisk tilnærming til eksisterende kunnskap
  • utforske sammenhenger mellom abiotiske og biotiske faktorer i et økosystem og diskutere hvordan energi og materie omdannes i kretsløp

Wildlife

Animal and plant species that have not been domesticated. It also includes all the organisms that live in their environments without being introduced by humans.

Stress

Biological response to environmental pressures or threats that disrupt the balance in the body. It triggers adaptive behaviours and physiological changes aimed at survival. It is a survival mechanism that helps animals respond to and cope with environmental challenges, but chronic stress can be harmful.

Seafloor destruction

The physical and ecological damage or degradation of the ocean floor caused by natural events or human activities, leading to the loss of marine habitats, biodiversity, and ecosystem functions.

Seafloor damage caused by dredging for scallops © Howard Wood/COAST

Parasite

An organism that lives in or on a host organism of a different species, and uses that organisms’ resources at the detriment of the host organism. Tapeworms are one well-known kind of parasite.

Overfishing

Catching fish at a higher rate than the population or stock has a chance to recover. To simplify, there are not enough mature adults that can reproduce and keep the population healthy. Overfishing leads to decreases in population numbers and can even lead to crashes of entire fishing grounds.

Ocean warming

The process of rising sea water temperatures caused by the Earth’s atmosphere trapping more heat due to greenhouse gas emissions, with the oceans absorbing most of this excess heat. Ocean warming can have catastrophic consequences on all life, both in the water, but also on land.

Schematic visualisation of ocean warming © Copernicus Marine Service

Ocean acidification

The process of sea water becoming more acidic (lower pH value) caused by the excess of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolving in the water and forming acid. The levels of carbon dioxide are rising due to different human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes. Ocean acidification causes issues for all life in the ocean.

Schematic visualisation of ocean acidification © Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Nutrient

A substance found in food, such as proteins, sugars, fats, or vitamins, that provides the body with the necessary fuel and materials to grow, develop, and maintain health.

Nursing

The act of a female mammal feeding milk to a baby or juvenile. The female’s mammary glands produce milk that is rich in all the nutrients that the offspring needs for optimal growth and development. The milk content differs from species to species, depending on what the young need for development. Pinnipeds always nurse on land or ice, while cetaceans nurse underwater.

Harp seal pup nursing on its mother © Ann Harvey

Mitigation

The action undertaken to reduce or minimise the severity, seriousness or negative consequences of something. For example, different rules and regulations made to help fight the negative effects of climate change.

Mining

The process of digging a valuable material, minerals, from the Earth. Mining can be surface or underground. In surface mining, the minerals are extracted from near the Earth’s surface and this type can be very destructive to surrounding area. Underground mining consists of taking minerals from deep under the surface by digging or blasting tunnels. Deep sea or seabed mining refers to extracting minerals from the ocean floor.

Miners walking to an underground mining tunnel © Shahir Chundra

Guideline

A general rule, principle or a piece of information. Suggests or instructs on how an activity needs to be performed, or how people are expected to behave in a given situation.

Dredging

The mechanical process of removing sediment, debris, or other material from the bottom of bodies of water such as rivers, harbours, lakes, or seas. It is done to keep waterways deep enough for ships, support port construction, extract underwater resources like sand, prevent flooding by clearing blockages, and clean up polluted sediments. Dredging can harm marine ecosystems by destroying habitats on the sea floor, increasing water turbidity, and disturbing or displacing marine life. It may also release pollutants trapped in the sediment, affecting water quality and the health of nearby organisms.

Excavator dredger © Sillerkiil

Disturbance

An event or action that changes or interrupts the natural behaviour of plants, animals or the environment.  In this context we are talking about human activities that cause negative changes in the environment.

Cumulative impacts

The combined effects of multiple activities or environmental changes over time that, together, cause greater harm to a species or ecosystem than each would individually. They build up gradually, often leading to significant long-term damage that may not be apparent from any single action alone.

Biodiversity

All different plant and animal species that live in the same habitat. The level of biodiversity can be a good indicator of the state (health and stability) of the ecosystem.

Aquaculture

 Farming in the water, both fresh and sea, i.e., breeding, raising, and harvesting aquatic organisms, such as fish, shellfish, crabs, or algae for profit. 

Salmon farm © Erik Christensen

Algal bloom

Quick growth in the population of algae in freshwater or marine ecosystems, as a result of excessive nutrients in the environment.  It is usually characterised by changes in the colouration of the sea depending on which species of algae have caused the bloom (red, brown or green). These blooms have a harmful effect on the environment and other species that live in the area: the limit the amount of light that penetrates the water surface, use up all the oxygen in the water and suffocate other organisms, and even produce toxins as a by-product of their metabolism.

Large algal bloom in Lake Erie (USA) in 2017 that was seen from space © NASA/USGS satellite

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Issuagaqarluni assersuusiornerup iluani assersuusiat uumassusilerinermi atorsinnaallugillu nalilersorsin- naassagaat.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup piusuusaartitat atorlugit uumasut aallar­ tartut aallajuitsullu ukiup ingerlanerani uumasarne­ rat sanilliussinnaavaa.Atuartup uumasut aallartartut aallajuitsullu ukiup ingerlanerani uumasarnerat ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Issuagaqarluni assersuusiornerup iluani assersuusiat pinngortitaleriffiusumik nunalerinermi atorsinnaallugillu nalilersorsinnaassagaat.

Nunarsuaq

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup nunap assingi assigiin- ngitsut atorsinnaavai aammalu allorniusat tukimukartut sani- mukartullu atorlugit sumiiffinnik tikkuussisinnaalluni.Atuartup nunap assingi, nunap assinginik atuaaneq ilisarnaatillu nassuiaataasut ilisi- masaqarfigivai.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut uumassusilerinermi misissuinissanik aaqqissuisinnaassasut, ingerlatsisinnaassasut nalilersuisinnaassasullu.

Allanngoriartorneq (Evolutioni)

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartoq uumassusillit uumassusilinnut pissuse­ qatiminnut atasuuneran­ nik misissuisinnaavoq.Atuartup uumassusillit aaqqissugaasumik nalu­ naarsugaanerat uumassu­ silinnillu immikkoortiteri­ saatsit ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaartut (fødekæder) nerisareqatigiiaarnerillu (fødenet) misissorsinnaavai.Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaarnerat (fødekæder) nerisareqa­ tigiiaartuunerlu (fødenet) ilisimasaqarfigivai.

 

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Issuagaqarluni assersuusiornerup iluani assersuusiat uumassusilerinermi atorsinnaallugillu nalilersorsin- naassagaat.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaartut (fødekæder), nerisareqatigiiaar­ tut (fødenet) nukinnillu atuisar­ nerup pyramideatut takussutis­ siaralugit nammineq sanaaminik piusuusaartitaliarisinnaavai.Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaartut (fødekæder), nerisareqatigiiaar­ tut (fødenet) nukinnillu atuisarnerup pyramideata imminnut ataqatigiinnerat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Isumalluutit piujuaannartitsinerlu

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup piusuusaartitat ator­ lugit uumasut aalajangersima­ sut uumasoqatigiillutik uumaf­ fimminni amerlassutsimikkut imminnut sunniivigeqatigiit­ tarnerat nassuiarsinnaavaa.Atuartup uumasut aalajanger­ simasut uumasoqatigiillutik uumaffimminni amerlassutsi­ mikkut imminnut sunniivigeqatigiittarnerat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Paasisat aallaavigalugit sanilliussinerup iluani uumassusilerineq avatangiisinut sanillersuussinnaassa- gaat, atuartitissutillu imaa pinngortitamut ilisimatusarnermik ineriartortitsinermut sanillersuussinnaas- sagaat.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup pinngortitami ataqa­ tigiinnernut sunniutit pinngor­ titami namminermi pisartut inuullu pilersitai, silap pissu­ siata allanngoriartornera ilan­ ngullugu isumaliutigisinnaavai.Atuartup pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit allannguutaasa kinguneri, silap pissusiata allanngoriartornera ilanngul­ lugu ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup uumassusillit assi­ giinngiiaartut amerlangaarsu­ siisa pingaarutaat nassuiarsin­ naavaa uumassusillillu assigiin­ ngiiaartut amerlangaarsusiisa annertusitinnissaannut suliniuti­ nik siunnersuuteqarsinnaalluni.Atuartup uumassusillit assigiinngiiaartut amerlangaarsusaat taassumunngalu sunniu­ teqartartut ilisimasa­ qarfigivai.

Isumalluutit piujuaannartitsinerlu

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup inuup pinngorti­ tamut qanoq sunniuteqartar­ nera najugaqarfinnilu pinngortitamut suut suliniutaasinnaanersut isumaliutigisinnaavai.Atuartup najugaqarfinni pinngortitamut suliniutaasinnaasut ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Whale oil

Oil derived from the blubber or melon of whales. Whale oil extracted from different species has different names and uses. Sperm oil is extracted from the blubber and spermaceti of sperm whales, train oil from baleen whales, and melon oil from small toothed whales.

Samples of whale oil © Martha’s Vineyard Museum

Vessel

A ship or a boat. Craft used for navigation on the water.

Statsraad Lehmkuhl, one of the world’s largest and oldest sailing ships in operational service © Bruno Girin

Selkie

Creatures from Celtic and Norse mythology. Shapeshifters that can change form between seals and humans by removing or putting on their seal skin.

Illustration of a Selkie woman changing into her seal form © Nataša Ilinčić

Overexploitation

Excessively harvesting a natural resource faster than it can replenish itself through natural processes. For instance, using too much freshwater for agriculture can deplete aquifers because the water cycle takes longer to refill them; hunting too many blue whales in the 20th century dramatically reduced their global population because their reproductive rate is slow.

Moratorium

A temporary delay or suspension of activity, law or payment. In our context, the moratorium reefers to the cessation of the hunt of large whales in 1985 onwards. That means that since then, the member countries of the IWC have stopped whaling, with the exception of Iceland and Norway.

Global North

Global North and Global South are the terms used to group countries based on their defining characteristics with regard to socioeconomics and politics. More specifically, the Global North consists of the world’s developed countries, whereas the Global South consists of the world’s developing countries and least developed countries. The terms do not refer to the Northern and Southern hemisphere, as some of the countries of the Global North are located in the geographical south, and vice versa.

Economic classification of the world’s countries and territories by the UNCTAD in 2023: the Global North is highlighted in blue, and the Global South is highlighted in red © United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)

Game piece

Pieces that are moved around in board games like chess or checkers. The game pieces were historically carved from different natural materials like wood and ivory, and in some countries that were whale hunting countries, they were made from marine mammal bones.

12th century chess pieces called the Lewis Chessmen, named after the island they were found at. The pieces are carved out of walrus ivory and whales’ teeth © National Museums Scotland

Beaked whales

Family of toothed whales counting 22 species. They are the least known of all whale species because they mostly stay in deep offshore areas, avoid boats, and are hard to identify. Almost everything we know about these animals, we learned from stranded individuals. They are named after their extended snout, and most species of this family only have one pair of tusk-like teeth that is only visible in males.

All known species of beaked whales © Jörg Mazur

Wilderness

Area or region that is not significantly disturbed by human activity (no extensive agriculture or urban development).

Clements Mountain, over a million acres of federally protected wilderness area in Montana, USA © Lawrence Stolt

Nasal septum

The cartilage wall that separates two nostrils from each other. In adult male hooded seals, part of the nasal septum is very elastic, so they can inflate it and it comes out through their nose like a balloon. 

Nasal septum © Spirox, Inc. 2017

Qajaq

Greenlandic spelling of kayak. Small, one-person vessel used by Indigenous people for hunting and transportation. In Greenland, it is traditionally made from seal skin stretched over a frame made of whalebone or driftwood.

Traditional Greenlandic qajaq © Ville Miettinen

Monitoring

Activity that ensures that something is happening in accordance with rules and regulations. In the context of hunting, monitoring is conducted to make sure that animals are hunted in compliance with welfare standards, safety standards for the hunters, and that government guidelines for hunted stocks are being followed.

Marine protected areas

A marine protected area (MPA) is a clearly defined region established to conserve marine biodiversity, ecosystem health, and cultural heritage. As part of a globally connected network, MPAs help safeguard marine resources while ensuring the continued supply of essential ecosystem services. Effects of MPAs can be seen not just in the areas themselves, but also surrounding areas, as marine life “spills” over the boarders of the MPA increasing biodiversity and biomass in the areas around it. Not all MPAs have the same level of protection: while some are fully protected and nothing can be taken from there, others allow for some level of resource extraction.

Figure showing the effect of different levels of protection in MPAs © Adapted from Ferreira et al. 2022

Anthropogenic

Of human origin. Changes in the environment or pollution caused by human activities such as farming, mining, fishing, are called anthropogenic changes. Anthropogenic underwater noise is sound caused by ships, building marine infrastructure, sonar, and other human activities.

Sea ice

Frozen sea water. It covers part of the Arctic and Antarctic regions throughout the year, and also forms seasonally in some regions. It can be classified as (land)fast ice if it is attached to land or pack ice if it is not.

Harp seals on sea ice © Garry Stenson / DFO Canada

Vertebrae

Irregularly shaped bones that form the vertebral column or spine. Vertebrate animals were named for having a spine, compared to invertebrates, which don’t have it. The role of the spine is to protect spinal cord, as well stabilise pelvic bones and upper body, and allow movement.

Vertebrae that form the lower spine in humans © Anatomy.app

Bottom feeder

Animals that feed on other organisms that live on or near the bottom of a body of water.

Circumpolar

Distribution type where species occur over a wide range of longitudes, but only in high latitudes. That means that species can be found all around either the North or the South Pole. An example of a species with circumpolar distribution is the polar bear.

Circumpolar distribution of polar bears © Wikipedia

Lipid-rich

Foods that have high content of omega-3 fatty acids and other beneficial fats. Fish species like mackerel, herring, salmon, and capelin are lipid-rich.

Sexual dimorphism

Phenomenon in which males and females of the same species have a significant difference in appearance. These differences can be in the overall size, shape, colour, or even the presence of different organs (like the nasal sacs of hooded seals).

Sexual dimorphism in killer whales. Longer dorsal fin of male compared to female © Fernando Ugarte

Ulo knife

Also known as ulu, or a women’s knife. Traditional all-purpose knife used by Indigenous women of the Arctic. It is used for all kinds of purposes, from skinning and cleaning animals, to cutting hair or food, and even trimming ice blocks.

Traditional West Greenlandic ulo knife © Lisa Risager

Polynya

Large, open-water area surrounded by sea ice. They can be coastal or open-ocean.

Polynya © Jeff Schmaltz / NASA

Melon

A round, fatty organ located in the forehead of the toothed whales and used in echolocation and communication. Its function is to focus and adjust the animals’ vocalisation, acting as a sound lens.

Melon of bottlenose dolphin © McKenna et al. 2007

Leads

Leads are linear fractures in sea ice that occur at any time of the year. They can extend for hundreds of kilometres and can be from a few to several hundreds of metres in width.

A lead in sea ice © Joe MacGregor / NASA

Entrapment

Event where a pod of cetaceans gets surrounded by ice due to rapidly forming or shifting sea ice. If the animals are unable to leave the entrapment, this can lead to the death of some or all pod members.

Beluga entrapment © Kristin Laidre

Poultry

Domesticated birds, e.g., chickens, ducks, pigeons, raised in captivity for the production of eggs, meat, and/or feathers.

Pack ice

Any area of sea ice that is not attached to the land and is made up of smaller parts that have frozen together. Because it is not attached to the shore, pack ice can move, so another name for it is drift ice. It expands during the winter and recedes during the summer.

Pack ice in the waters off Antarctica © Armin Rose/Shutterstock.com / Encyclopædia Britannica

Omnivores

All animals that eat both plants or phytoplankton and other animals.

Adaptive management

Adaptive management is a structured, step-by-step approach to improving resource management by learning from the outcomes of past decisions. It involves making decisions in the face of uncertainty, closely monitoring the results, and adjusting strategies over time. The goal is to reduce uncertainty and improve decision-making by continuously refining practices based on what is learned. It emphasises accountability and clarity in each decision-making step, allowing for flexibility and better long-term management of resources.

Adaptive Management Cycle © Adapted from Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Marine and Atmospheric Research

Ecosystem-based management

Integrated approach that incorporates the entire ecosystem, including humans, into resource management decisions, and is guided by an adaptive management approach (NOAA). 

Ecosystem based management © NOAA

Herbivores

All animals that feed on plants, algae or phytoplankton.

Manatee grazing on seagrass © Carol Grant / Oceangrant Images

Photosynthesis

Process in which primary producers—plants and phytoplankton—use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce energy in the form of sugar glucose and oxygen.

Lanugo

Soft, white, fine hair that covers the body of a seal pup inside of the uterus. Most pups have their first moult, shedding lanugo while still in-utero, but some, like ringed or harp seals are born white and covered with lanugo and shed it only after they are born.

Harp seal pup covered with lanugo © Michale Poltermann / IMR

Whiskers

Specialised, stiff, functional hairs on the face of mammals, used to feel their surrounding environment. They are longer and thicker than the rest of the animal’s fur and can even be moved independently. The whiskers of marine mammals are more sensitive than those of land mammals.

Long whiskers of bearded seal © Kerryn London / Flickr

Spade-shaped tooth

Broader and flatter teeth, such as those that harbour porpoises have. This shape resembles a shovel and is good for grasping and holding onto slippery prey, like fish and squid.

Spade-shaped tooth of a harbour porpoise © Monterey Bay Aquarium

Cone-shaped tooth

This type of teeth are pointed, sharp, and shaped like a cone. Dolphins have teeth like this. This shape helps them grip and tear into their prey more effectively, as they often hunt larger or more agile fish.

Cone-shaped dolphin teeth © Monterey Bay Aquarium

Spyhopping

A type of surfacing behaviour where a whale is upright with its head coming out of the water and then sinking gently back underwater without splashing. It is used by animals to survey the environment around them.

Killer whale spyhopping © Norwegian Orca Survey

Secondary sexual characteristics

Physical characteristics that relate to the sex of the organism but are not directly related to the reproductive system. They are developed later in life when the organism reaches sexual maturity. Secondary sexual characteristics may often have a role in securing a mate. Some examples are the antlers of stags, peacocks’ long tails, tusks of narwhals, or the hoods of hooded seals.

Different examples of secondary sexual characteristics

Lobtailing

A form of social behaviour of cetaceans where an animal lifts its tail fluke above the water and brings it down with force. The result is a big splash. They display this behaviour in order to call attention to other individuals or corral fish into a ball.

Killer whale lobtailing © Norwegian Orca Survey

Ecotype

Population that belongs to a species but is genetically, morphologically, and/or behaviourally distinct from the rest of the species. Ecotypes are adapted to a specific environmental condition or habitat and often look different from other ecotypes within that species.

Difference between Kangia ringed seal ecotype and typical ringed seal

Descendant

A plant or an animal that is related in a direct biological line to a particular plant or animal that lived before them.

Cosmopolite

A species that can be found almost anywhere on Earth, as it is able to adapt to a wide variety of environmental conditions.

Example of a distribution map of a cosmopolitan species (Orcinus orca) ©

IUCN

Canine

Single-pointed tooth adapted for tearing or piercing food. They are positioned next to, or behind the front teeth.

Harbour seal skull showing its canines © Puget Sound Museum of Natural History

Breaching

Behaviour where a whale or dolphin launches most or all of its body out of the water and falls with a big splash. This can happen when the animal feels playful, annoyed or aggressive, to scare fish or signal to other members of a group, and likely many other reasons.

Breaching humpback whale © Fernando Ugarte

Bow-riding

Behaviour where toothed whales swim at the front of a moving boat, or even a larger whale, riding the pressure waves created by its bow. By positioning themselves correctly, they can be propelled forward with little effort, often leaping and surfing along the boat’s wake.

Two bottlenose dolphins bow-riding © Bernd Würsig

Gillnet

Type of fishing gear. A wall of net that hangs in the water column. It is made so that fishes’ heads can pass through the mesh size but not their body, so their gills get stuck in the net.

Gillnet © NOAA Fisheries

Longline fishing

A fishing method that uses a long main line with baited hooks evenly spaced and attached to the main line by short branch lines.

Longline fishing © NOAA Fisheries

Soundscape

Acoustic environment. All the sounds produced by natural and artificial elements in a particular habitat or ecosystem. It includes all the sounds organisms make, but also the sounds that come from wind, water, movement of the earth, and human activities.

Pollution

The addition of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or any form of energy (such as heat, sound, or radioactivity) to the environment at a rate faster than it can be dispersed, diluted, decomposed, recycled, or stored in some harmless form (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Fitness

The ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its current environment.

Decompression sickness

Also known as divers’ disease or the bends. It happens when a diving person or animal ascends to the surface too quickly. Because of the sudden changes in pressure, the dissolved nitrogen in the blood gets released in the form of bubbles in the bloodstream and tissues and can cause different symptoms, such as fatigue, dizziness, neurological disturbances, pain, and even death.

Decompression sickness diagram © Coral Grand Divers

Precipitation

Any form of water, liquid or frozen, that forms in the atmosphere and falls back to the earth.

Different types of precipitation © Eschooltoday

Food insecurity

According to FAO, a person is food insecure when they lack regular access to enough safe and nutritious food for normal growth and development and an active and healthy life. This may be due to unavailability of food and/or lack of resources to obtain food.

Entanglement

Process in which an animal or part of one (e.g., jaw, flukes), becomes trapped in human-made objects, including marine debris, abandoned (ghost) fishing gear, and active fishing equipment.

Juvenile Antarctic fur seal entangled in fishing net © Nico de Bruyn

Taxonomy

Branch of science that deals with the identification, classification, and naming of extant (currently living) and extinct (no longer living, fossils) organisms based on shared characteristics. All known organisms are placed in categories that become narrower as more specific characteristics are used to describe them (domain > kingdom > phylum > class > order > family > genus > species). The current way of naming species was developed by Carl Linnaeus and it is called binominal (binary) nomenclature. According to it, each species name consists of two parts: the first is the name of the genus to which the species belongs and the second name distinguishes the species within the genus.  

Taxonomy Binomial scientific name of the humpback whale © Modified from Dawn Witherington / NOAA

Environment

Everything that surrounds someone or something, natural or human made. The conditions that surround a person, animal, or a plant and that influence their growth, health, and all natural processes (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Components of environment © GeeksforGeeks

UN – United Nations

The United Nations is an international organisation founded in 1945 with the intended purpose of maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, achieving international cooperation, and serving as a centre for coordinating the actions of member nations. Currently made up of 193 Member States.

The UN logo

Stock

A unit of a species or population outlined for management reasons; should be designated and managed in such a way that the population and/or species as a whole persists throughout its range; often comprises a breeding population that occupies the same regions annually (NAMMCO).

Species

The basic unit of taxonomy. Consists of individuals that share common morphological and physical characteristics and can interbreed and give fertile offspring.

School of fish

A name for a group of fish swimming together.

School of herring © iStock

Satellite tagging

Research method used to track the movements and behaviours of animals, particularly those in marine or remote environments. This technique involves attaching a tag equipped with a satellite transmitter to the animal. As the animal moves, the tag sends data via satellite, which researchers can then analyse to gain insights into migration patterns, habitat use, and environmental interactions.

Satellite tag on a Kangia ringed seal © Aqqalu Rosing-Asvid

Pollutant

Harmful material or energy in the environment. A substance that makes the land, water, air and other media dirty, unsafe or unsuitable for use by anything that lives there. Plastic, toxic chemicals, noise, even light, can all be pollutants for different species.

Water pollution © Encyclopædia Britannica

Pod

Social groups of marine mammals that share strong social bonds. These groups have established hierarchy, and usually consist of related family members. Sometimes, many different pods can come together in one super-pod of hundreds or thousands of animals, e.g., if there is a lot of food available, usually for a short period.

Pod of killer whales © Fernando Ugarte

NASS-North Atlantic Sightings Surveys

NASS are internationally coordinated cetacean surveys conducted in 1987, 1989, 1995, 2001, 2007, 2015, and 2024. These surveys are among the most extensive wildlife assessments, with primary objective to obtain quantitative data on the distribution and abundance of cetacean species across the survey area, spanning the northern North Atlantic from Norway to North America.

Planned and completed tracks for NASS 2024 Survey © NAMMCO

MINTAG Project

The MINTAG Project is funded by NAMMCO and Fisheries Agency of Japan. The main goal of the project is to develop a new satellite tracking tool that can generate data crucial to improving the management and conservation of lesser-known whale species, such as fin, minke, sei, and Bryde’s whales.

Tagging of minke whale with a MINTAG Tag in Greenland 2023 © Fernando Ugarte

Lunge feeding

Feeding method of some baleen whales where a whale rushes towards its prey with its mouth open and catches the prey in one go.

Humpback whale using lunge feeding © Iain Brownlee / Alamy Stock Photo

Interdisciplinary

Relating to more than one branch of science, e.g. biology, physics, mathematics, sociology, and combining methods or expertise from them.

Indigenous Knowledge

A body of observations, oral and written knowledge, innovations, practices, and beliefs developed by Tribes and Indigenous Peoples through interaction and experience with the environment. It is applied to phenomena across biological, physical, social, cultural, and spiritual systems.  Indigenous Knowledge can be developed over millennia, continues to develop, and includes understanding based on evidence acquired through direct contact with the environment and long-term experiences, as well as extensive observations, lessons, and skills passed from generation to generation (Guidance for United States Federal Departments and Agencies on Indigenous Knowledge).

Human activity

Actions (projects, pastimes, tasks) that humans undertake, which can have intentional and unintentional effects on the environment. In the marine environment, human activities include hunting, fishing, shipping, dredging, whale-watching, tourism, aquaculture, building infrastructure, extracting energy resources and materials, etc.

Coexistence

Living or existing at the same time in the same place. Ability of different species (including humans) to live together in the same ecosystem without one driving the other to extinction. It addresses how species interact, compete for resources, and establish stable populations within a shared habitat.

Habitat

Place where an organism or a community of organisms lives, including all living and non-living factors or conditions of the surrounding environment (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Arctic Council

The Arctic Council is as an intergovernmental platform dedicated to tackling the challenges faced by Arctic governments and the Indigenous communities inhabiting the region. The Arctic Council is formed by eight member states, each with sovereignty over territories within the Arctic Circle: Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States.

Arctic Council

Bubble net feeding

A learned, cooperative feeding strategy that involves a group of whales. Humpback whales and Bryde’s whales use this strategy. The whales circle a school of small fish or swarms of krill they are hunting and start blowing bubbles. The fish are unable to escape this “net” of bubbles and stay trapped. Then the whales swim with their mouths open through the trapped fish, and efficiently feed themselves.

1. Bubble net feeding mechanism © Sharma & Sharma, 2023; 2. Humpback whales deploying bubble net feeding strategy © K. Kosma/Royal Society Open Science 2019

Western science

Systematic approach to understanding the natural world that is rooted in using the scientific method. This involves formulating hypotheses, conducting experiments, observing outcomes, and drawing conclusions based on data. Frequently contrasted with Indigenous Knowledge.

Welfare

Care about the well-being of animals. In the context of hunting, the animal welfare aim is to ensure the least amount of suffering and highest possible instant death rates in the hunt, while the human welfare aim is to ensure hunter safety.

Tusk

A long tooth that animals such elephants, walruses, narwhals, and some beaked whales have. Tusks extend beyond the mouth of the animal, sometimes in a curved or spiral shape, and often only appearing in the males of the species. Can be very valuable in human trade.

1. Atlantic walrus tusks © Christian Lydersen. 2. Narwhal tusks © Glenn Williams NIST

True seal

Also known as “earless” seals, true seals belong to a group of pinnipeds that have ear holes, but lack an external ear flap. While sea lions belong to the group of pinnipeds, they are not true seals because they have ear flaps. Grey seals instead, are true seals.

True, or “earless” seal (harbour seal) © Michael Poltermann

Trophic level

Step in a food chain or an ecosystem. The organisms of a chain are classified into these levels on the basis of their feeding behaviour (Encyclopædia Britannica), that is, how many levels they are above primary producers.

The trophic levels pyramid © The University of Waikato Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato

Trawl

A large net with the form of a cone that is dragged through the water behind a ship to gather fish or other marine life.

Twin bottom trawl © The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

Traditional Ecological Knowledge

Knowledge, practices, and beliefs about relationships between living beings in a specific ecosystem that is acquired by Indigenous people over hundreds or thousands of years through direct contact with the environment, handed down through generations, and used in life-sustaining ways. This knowledge includes the relationships between people, plants, animals, natural phenomena, landscapes, and timing of events for activities such as hunting, fishing, trapping, agriculture, and forestry. It encompasses the world view of a people, which includes ecology, spirituality, human and animal relationships, and more (Synopsis of Traditional Ecological Knowledge, National Park Service).

Toxin

A poisonous substance that is a product of metabolic activities of another living organism.

Top predator

Also known as apex predator. Any carnivorous animal that is at the top of the food chain and has no natural predators. One of the most well-known top predators of the marine environment is the killer whale.

Tail fluke

Triangular ending of a whales’ tail. Like the dorsal fin, flukes do not have bone or muscles. Unique to every whale, similar to fingerprints in humans. Tail flukes are often used for identifying individuals, especially for humpback whales, whose white pigmentation patterns really stand out.

Identifying traits on a humpback whale tail © Rhys Watkin

Sustenance

Something that keeps someone or something alive (and healthy), usually referring to food and drink as nourishment, but sometimes to mental or spiritual support. Can be confused with subsistence, which refers to the act of staying alive.

Sustainable use

The use of a resource in a way that it does not lead to the long-term degradation of the environment, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations (Glossary of terms to negotiators or MEAs, 2007). NAMMCO is committed to the sustainable and responsible use of marine resources by developing effective conservation and management measures for marine mammals, while acknowledging the rights and needs of coastal communities. The sustainable use of marine mammals by coastal communities contributes to a lower environmental footprint, improved livelihoods, and economic growth, and supports seven of the SDGs.

Sustainable food systems

A food system that delivers food security and nutrition for all in such a way that the economic, social and environmental bases to generate food security and nutrition for future generations are not compromised (HLPE, 2014).

Factors of Sustainable food systems © Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO)

Sustainability

The long-term viability of a community, set of social institutions, or societal practice. In general, sustainability is understood as a form of intergenerational ethics in which the environmental and economic actions taken by present persons do not diminish the opportunities of future persons to enjoy similar levels of wealth, utility, or welfare (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Survival rate

The percentage of individuals which survive from one age group to the next, or percentage of survivors after a disease or mass mortality event.

Survey

Generally, survey is a systematic method of collecting information or data. There are different types of surveys, one of them being abundance surveys. This term refers specifically to the assessment of the quantity and distribution of a particular species or resource within a specified area. These surveys aim to estimate population sizes, density, and trends over time. Abundance surveys are important as they as they help researchers understand ecosystem health, make informed management decisions, and monitor changes in biodiversity. Methods may include direct counts, sampling, and remote sensing techniques. One example of abundance survey is the NASS-North Atlantic Sighting Surveys.

Surface skim feeding

Feeding method of some baleen whales, where a whale slowly swims near the surface with its mouth open, filtering the prey as it moves forward.

Sei whale surface skim feeding © 7SeasWhaleWatch

Superpod

An aggregation of whales or dolphins consisting of many smaller pods that gather for feeding, mating, or socialising. Sperm and killer whales are known to form superpods with hundreds of individuals, while dolphin superpods can reach the thousands.

Superpod of sperm whales © Tony Wu

Subsistence

The act of making a living, such that an individual, family, or community has the essential food, income, and cultural enrichment needed to stay fed, sheltered, and healthy. Can be confused with sustenance, which refers primarily to a source of nourishment.

Stranding

Event in which one or more cetaceans wash up on shore and cannot return to deeper water. The animals may be found alive, in which case experts may try to return them to the water if there is a chance of survival. This is called refloating; refloated animals may be strand again soon after, depending on the original reason for stranding. Animals may also wash up already dead.

Stranded North Atlantic right whale © Tucker Joenz/Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission

Stakeholders

Any individual, social group, or actor who possesses an interest, a legal obligation, a moral right, or other concern in the decisions or outcomes of an organisation. Stakeholders either affect or are affected by the achievement of an organisation’s objectives (Encyclopædia Britannica). In the case of NAMMCO, stakeholders include all individuals who have an interest in the management and conservation of marine mammals, such as managers, scientists, hunters, and tourists.

Squid beak

Mouth of a squid and beginning of its digestive system. Made of a hard, indigestible material (chitin) that is left in stomachs of whales that prey on squids. Beaks remaining in the stomachs of sperm whales are one of the proofs of existence of colossal squid.

Squid beak © Mark Conlin/Alamy Stock Photo

Spermaceti

A liquid, fatty substance found in the heads of sperm and bottlenose whales. When cooled down it becomes solid and waxy. Humans used this substance in cosmetics, wax candles, ointments, textile finishing, and as industrial lubricant (Encyclopædia Britannica). It was highly prized because of how brightly and clearly it burned in lamps and candles.

A sample of spermaceti wax, a spermaceti candle, and a jar of sperm oil © Genevieve Anderson

Spectrogram

A visual representation of a sound. It shows the frequencies of a particular sound and how they change over time. When used in audio context, it is also called sonograph, voiceprint, or voicegram.

Spectrogram of a Weddell seal vocalisation © Screenshot from Sound in the Sea

Seine (fishing) net

A large net deployed in a way that encircles an entire area, creating a wall of netting that traps the fish on the inner side. Can be deployed close to the shore and pulled in by people or small boats, or with larger boats further offshore as a purse seine, where the bottom of the net is pulled shut like a drawstring purse before it is brought back on board. in a way that encircles an entire area, creating a wall of netting.

Purse seine fishing net © NOAA Fisheries

Resource

Any biological, mineral, or aesthetic asset afforded by nature without human intervention that can be used for some form of benefit, whether material (economic) or immaterial (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Regulation

A rule or legally binding instruction that an authority issues and controls its implementation. These regulations help guide behaviour, manage risks, and uphold societal values through enforceable standards. For example, national regulations around hunting determine the species that can be hunted in that country, as well as seasonal restrictions, catch limits, reporting, and hunting methods.

Pup

Young offspring of a pinniped. Also called a calf for some species, e.g., walrus.

A harp seal mother and pup © Michael Poltermann

Policymaking

The process of formulating and implementing policies to address societal and environmental issues by establishing frameworks and boundaries, and legitimising participants in the decision-making process. Policymaking creates the rules, while decision–making implements actions based on those rules. Decision-making can also occur for specific situations before a relevant policy is formed, sometimes helping create new policies based on that example.

Pectoral fins

Also known as flippers. A pair of fins located near the front and sides of a catacean (or fish), used primarily to stabilise and steer the body through the water, i.e., not for locomotion.

Pectoral fin of a bottlenose dolphin © Fernando Ugarte

Nutritional value

The measure of essential nutrients including carbohydrates, fat, protein, minerals, and vitamins in items of food.

NGO

Non-governmental organisation. According to the United Nations, an NGO is an non-profit organisation, group, or institution that operates independently from a Government, and has humanitarian or development objectives.

Necropsy

Autopsy, dissection of a dead animal to determine its characteristics, such as age, sex, health status (before dying), find the cause of death, and extract tissue samples for testing. Often performed on cetaceans that stranded.

Nanoplastics

Plastic fragments smaller than 1 micrometre in size. Formed as a result of microplastics breaking down from exposure to time and weather elements.

Moulting

The natural process in which an animal loses its feathers, skin, or hair at a particular time of year so that new feathers, skin, or hair can grow.

Moulting grey seal pup © Sandra Granquist

Mortality rate

The number of deaths in a given population over a period of time due to a defined cause. For example, the number of dead striped dolphins per month due to a contagious virus.

Microplastics

Plastic fragments smaller than 5 mm in length (according to NOAA and European Chemicals Agency) that are present as a consequence of the plastic pollution. There are two types: primary and secondary. Primary microplastics are microbeads, plastic pellets, and plastic fibres used in personal care products, as a raw material, or in clothing. Secondary microplastics are a product of larger plastic breakdown from exposure to elements and time.

Different sources and types of microplastics © Encounter Edu

Methane (CH₄)

A chemical compound formed by one carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms. It is the main compound of natural gas and one of the most potent greenhouse gases.

Methane molecule. Black: carbon atom, white: hydrogen atoms © Ben Mills

Mattak

A traditional food in Inuit, Chukchi, and Nenets cuisine consisting of sliced whale skin with blubber.

Mattak © Lisa Risager

Matriarchal

Societal structure in which positions of power are held by female individuals. Some animal societies, like killer whale pods, are an example of matriarchal societies. In their pods, the oldest female—grandmother—has a leading role.

Mating

Male and female animals from the same species coming together for the purpose of sexual reproduction.

Marine debris

Any human-made object that ends up in the marine environment such as straws, soda bottles, plastic grocery bags, fishing gear, etc.

Beach covered with human made trash © NOAA Fisheries

Livelihood

Means of securing the basic necessities of life, such as food, shelter, and clothing. In simple terms, it is all ways people earn a living, including employment, self-employment, agriculture, fishing, and other income-generating activities.

Lair

A cave-like place where a wild animal lives. Ringed seals use snow lairs as shelters from the extreme cold temperatures and harsh weather conditions, as well as for giving birth and nursing their pups.

Diagram and photograph of ringed seal snow lair

IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature

Established in 1948, the IUCN is the world’s largest environmental network, composed of over 1,400 member organisations, including governments and civil society organisations. Its mission is to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable. The IUCN Red List indicates the status and extinction risk of every known species on Earth.

IUCN logo

Intestine

Bowel. Muscular tube extending from the stomach to the anus. The primary purpose is food digestion, and either absorption of the nutrients or expelling of the residue.

Indigenous whaling

Whaling conducted by native communities for subsistence, tradition or cultural practices. This type of hunt is generally well regulated to ensure sustainability and respect for cultural heritage.

Traditional way of narwhal hunting in Greenland © Kristin Laidre

Hertz (Hz)

The unity of frequency in the International System of Units (SI). It measures the number of cycles per second of a periodic phenomenon, e.g. one hertz corresponds to one cycle occurring in one second. Sound frequencies are measured in Hz.

Haul out

A behaviour that pinnipeds have when they temporarily leave the water for reproducing or resting, among other things.

Hauled out walruses © Fernando Ugarte

Harpoon

A barbed spear used to kill whales, tuna, swordfish, and other large sea creatures, formerly thrown by hand but now, in the case of whales, shot from specially constructed guns (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Whaling harpoon © Encyclopædia Britannica

Grindadráp

A traditional method of drive hunting practiced in the Faroe Islands, which involves herding various species of whales and dolphins, predominantly pilot whales, into shallow bays where they are then beached and slaughtered.

Greenhouse gases

Gases present in Earth’s atmosphere that trap heat by allowing sunlight to pass through but preventing heat from escaping back into space. The primary greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons.

The effect that greenhouse gases have on the heating of the Earth’s surface © Wikipedia

Ghost (fishing) gear

Fishing equipment (nets, lines, traps, or pieces of them) that has been lost, abandoned, or discarded in the ocean. This gear continues to float or drift in the water, often being carried by currents and winds, without being actively controlled or used, and posing serious threats to marine life and their habitats.

A fish caught in discarded fishing net © Flavio Vitiello

Frequency

The number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time, such as the appearance of harbour porpoises in a fjord during a year or the number of your heartbeats per minute. The frequency of a particular sound refers to the number of soundwave vibrations created per second—high frequency sounds are more high-pitched, low frequency sounds are deeper.

Food web

A complex network of interconnecting and overlapping food chains showing feeding relationships within an ecosystem (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Food security

The condition in which all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and preferences for an active and healthy life (World Food Summit, 1996).

Feeback loop

In climate change, a feedback loop is a mechanism that either accelerates or decelerates a temperature trend. A positive feedback loop increases the rate of temperature rise, while a negative feedback loop decreases it. For instance, rising temperatures lead to reduced ice cover, which lowers the earth’s albedo and leads to faster temperature increases.

Echolocation

A biological sonar used by toothed whales to determine the location of objects using sound. Echolocation is used for orientation in 3D space, for locating prey, and in social interactions. Toothed whales have a special organ in the front of their head—the melon—made of fatty tissue that acts as a sound lens.

Echolocation mechanism © Zainuddin Lubis (2016)

Decision-making

The process of selecting a course of action from available alternatives based on the analysis of information, estimation of probabilities, and assigning values to anticipated outcomes. A decision usually concerns a specific situation, for example, managers deciding on the number of animals that can be hunted in a region based on the available scientific data.

Cuttlebone

Also known as cuttlefish bone. Thick, internal, calcified shell that helps cuttlefish regulate buoyancy.

Cuttlebone © Mariko GODA

Citizen science

Research conducted with members of the general public and/or nonprofessional researchers that has the potential to include people who are not usually involved in science, and thus bring closer the science, decision making, and society as a whole for the benefit of all.

Carbon tunnel vision

A concept that refers to the narrow focus on decreasing carbon dioxide emissions when addressing climate change, overlooking the broader spectrum of sustainable measures needed to tackle climate change.

Carbon tunnel vision diagram © New Perspective

Carbon footprint

The amount of carbon dioxide and other carbon-based greenhouse gas, such as methane, emissions associated with all the activities of a person, entity, or activity (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Carbon dioxide (CO₂)

A chemical compound formed by carbon and oxygen that is one of the most important greenhouse gases.

Carbon dioxide molecule. Black: carbon atom; red: oxygen atoms © Jynto / Discovery Studio Visualizer

Calf

Young (baby to juvenile) marine mammal. Young seals are more commonly called pups, but calf is used for whales, dolphins, porpoises, and walrus.

A humpback whale mother-calf pair © Fredrik Christiansen

CAFF – Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna

CAFF is the Biodiversity Working Group of the Arctic Council. The main goal of the Working Group is the conservation of the Arctic’s biodiversity and the sustainable management of its living resources. CAFF works to address the challenges facing Arctic ecosystems, including climate change, habitat loss, and the impacts of human activities.

CAFF logo

Buoyancy

The ability of a body to float or to rise to the surface when submerged in the water. Negative buoyancy means the body will sink unless prevented (e.g., by swimming hard).

Biomagnification

Increase in concentration of a chemical substance with increasing trophic level of organism in the food web (Drouillard 2008). For example, even if the concentration of mercury is low in algae, a fish that eats lots of algae will accumulate more mercury; if a dolphin eats lots of those fish, the mercury levels in that dolphin will be much higher than in the algae.

Biomagnification mechanism © WWF

Bioaccumulation

The gradual build-up of a chemical substance over time in a living organism, either because it is taken up faster than it can be used or because the chemical cannot be used or excreted by the organism. Bioaccumulation can be dangerous for that organism if the accumulated chemical is toxic.

Bioaccumulation mechanism © WWF

Barnacle

A marine crustacean, that lives very often encrusted attached to a hard substrate such as a rock, shell, ship or whale. Some barnacle species attach only to one species of whale.

Barnacles on a humpback whale © Fernando Ugarte

Atom

The basic particle of chemical elements. Consists of a nucleus with protons and neutrons, surrounded by orbiting electrons.

The structure of an atom © Modified from VilVite

Ambergris

Also known as grey amber. Solid, waxy substance produced in sperm whale intestines. Fresh ambergris is black, soft, and has an unpleasant smell, while exposure to sun causes it to harden, become light grey or yellow, and get the pleasant smell it is recognised for. In sperm whales, it is assumed to protect their intestines from irritation caused by undigestible objects like squid beaks or cuttlebone. In Eastern cultures it is used in medicine and as a spice, while in Western cultures it has use as a perfume stabiliser (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Different stages of ambergris © Frans Beuse / Ambergris NZ Ltd

Arctic amplification

A phenomenon whereby any change (negative or positive) in the energy received by the Earth tends to result in a larger temperature change in the Arctic. This phenomenon has caused the Arctic to warm up to three to four times faster than other parts of the globe due to climate change (Rantanen et al., 2022).

Albedo

The fraction of light that gets reflected by a surface. Bright materials have a higher albedo (i.e., capacity to reflect light) than darker materials. In this context, snow or ice have a higher albedo than charcoal.

Albedo © Norwegian Polar Institute

Fluke print

ooth circles on the surface of water left by the movement of a cetacean’s tail fluke underwater. These fluke prints are useful in hunting and whale-watching, to follow the whale under the surface of the water as well as to determine the size of the whale.

Whale fluke prints © Pete Oxford/Minden Pictures

Baleen

Keratin-based structure (like hair, fingernails, and hooves) forming parallel plates that hang from the upper jaw of whales like a comb. This structure filters food from water and is what gives baleen whales their name.

Baleens © NOAA Fisheries

Predator

An animal that preys on, that is, hunts, kills, and eats, other animals.

Prey

An animal that is hunted or killed by another animal, a predator, for food.

Adaptation

“The natural process by which a living species becomes the best fitted for its environment. Adaptations are a result of natural selection’s acting upon heritable variation over several generations” (Gittleman, 2022). Organisms adapt in many different ways, their body structure, their physiology, the way they move through their environment, and even on genetical and molecular level. 

Fin

A thin flat appendage that sticks out from the body of a cetacean and is used in stabilising, moving or guiding the animal through water (Encyclopædia Britannica). All cetaceans have pectoral fins (near the front of their body) and caudal fins or flukes (at their tail). Most species also have a dorsal fin on their back, but in some it is very small or nonexistent.

Different fins of common dolphin © NOAA Fisheries

Countershading

A form of camouflage utilised by animals, where their coloration is darker on the upper side of the body and lighter on the underside. This adaptation, which is very common in pelagic species, helps them blend into their environment by reducing the contrast between their body and the surrounding light conditions, making it more challenging for predators or prey to spot them when viewed from above or below.

Countershading of a minke whale © MRI

Feeding aggregation

A gathering or concentration of individuals of a species in a particular area for the purpose of feeding. For some species, the timing and location of seasonal feeding aggregations can be predicted by the movement of available prey.

Group of humpback whales feeding © Jan Straley / NOAA Fisheriesr

Eye lens

The curved, transparent part of the eye that bends and focuses light. Its primary function is to regulate the amount of light entering the eye and enable marine mammals to see clearly underwater.

Dorsal fin

The fin, made primarily from cartilage (like your ears) located on the back of marine mammals. The shape and size of the dorsal fin is useful for distinguishing similar species, and in some species, such as bottlenose dolphins, can even help us identify individuals!

Dorsal fin of a killer whale © Fernando Ugarte

Industrial whaling

Large-scale commercial whale hunting operations that began during the 19th century, using advanced technology and large factory vessels to maximise catches. Industrial whaling in the 19th and 20th centuries had a significant negative impact on the species hunted.  

Ventral pleats

Also called ventral grooves. Accordion-like folds of skin and blubber on the underside of rorqual whales, from the tip of the lower jaw all the way down to the stomach. These folds expand and allow the whale to engulf a massive amount of water at once, effectively entrapping large amounts of their food (krill and small fish). When the whale closes its mouth, the ventral pleats contract, pushing water out while the prey is filtered by the baleen plates.

Lunge feeding mechanism of rorquals © Croll et al. 2018

Commercial whaling

 Whaling for the purpose of generating economic profit, as opposed to subsistence whaling. With larger, faster vessels and improved technology in the 1800s, some whaling operations started happening on an industrial scale, e.g., with factory ships. Nowadays, all commercial whaling in the North Atlantic is done on a non-industrial scale.

Subspecies

 Populations of a species that are physically distinguishable from each other, but that could, at least theoretically, still interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Subspecies usually arise due to geographic isolation, i.e., living separately from each other in habitats that required different adaptations.

Ecosystem

Complex system formed of all living organisms and their interactions between each other and their physical environment in a particular area. All components of an ecosystem are connected through the flow of nutrients and energy.

Toothed whale

Odontoceti. Group of cetaceans that include all whales with teeth, as well as dolphins and porpoises. Apart from teeth, they differ from baleen whales in their ability to echolocate. There are 73 species of toothed whales recognised globally, of which 14 reside in the NAMMCO management area.

Different species of toothed whales (beluga whale, finless porpoise, Cuvier’s beaked whale, Amazon river dolphin)

Feeding ground

Areas of the sea/ocean where marine mammals gather to find and hunt food, typically because of predictable concentrations of prey in those areas.

Breeding ground

Areas where male and female marine mammals gather for mating, and where females give birth and nurse their calves. For seals and walruses, this always takes place on land or ice. Each species’ breeding season depends on its life cycle.

Crossbreeding

The process of breeding an organism with parents of two different breeds, varieties, species, or populations.

Offspring

A plant or animal’s immediate descendant, the direct product of reproduction.

Hybrid

An offspring resulting from the crossbreeding of two different species, such as between fin and blue whales.

A reconstruction of the narluga, hybrid between narwhal and beluga © Markus Bühler

Krill

Shrimp-like crustaceans that live in the open sea. They tend to form swarms of several thousand individuals, and are an important food source for many large animals like baleen whales.

Krill © Øystein Paulsen

Spout

A powerful burst of air, expelled from a whales blowhole, which creates a spray-like blow around the whale’s head. A whale’s spout can be used to recognise a whale species from afar. This is because each species, with their characteristic size and blowhole type, will have a different spout shape.

Spouts of different whales © GREMM

Extinction

The dying out or extermination of a species. This can happen through natural processes (e.g., a species not being able to survive competition with others), natural disasters (e.g., endemic plants being wiped out by a volcanic eruption), as well as through human activities (e.g., destroying the habitat of river dolphins, overexploitation of the Steller’s sea cow).

Population

A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular area at the same time that share a common genetic pool, allowing them to interbreed (Waples and Gaggiotti, 2006).

Vocalisation

The sounds that animals, including cetaceans and pinnipeds, make to communicate. There is a multitude of different sounds used during vocalisations, such as clicks, whistles, pulses, whirrs, grunts, and “song”. Clicks and pulses are generally used in echolocation, while whistles are thought to be used for communication within a group of dolphins. Baleen whales use low frequency songs to communicate over hundreds of kilometres.

Insulation

A layer of material that prevents heat, sound, or electricity from escaping or entering a body or building.

Blubber

A thick layer of fat under the skin of a marine mammal. The blubber serves as food storage, insulation, and helps regulate buoyancy.

Seal blubber ©

Food chain

The sequence of transfers of matter and energy in the form of food from one organism to another that consumes it.

Pinniped

Any of a group of 34 species of aquatic fin-footed mammals comprising seals, sea lions, and the walrus (Encyclopædia Britannica). Seven pinniped species are permanent residents in the NAMMCO management area.

Different species of pinnipeds (Atlantic walrus, Hooded seal, Harbour seal, Elephant seal)

NAMMCO-North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission

Established in 1992, NAMMCO is an intergovernmental body for cooperation on conservation, management, and study of cetaceans and pinnipeds in the North Atlantic, formed by the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Iceland, and Norway. NAMMCO advocates that all people, Indigenous or not, have a right to the sustainable use of marine mammals as a resource, without distinguishing between subsistence and commercial whaling.

Management area

The geographic area at which management is done for a given species. A species can have a wide distributional range and be impacted very differently by human activities in various parts of this range. Different threats require different conservation approaches and, therefore, management is done not at the species level, but at the area level, which is relevant for that particular species.

Cetacean

Any member of an entirely aquatic group of mammals commonly known as whales, dolphins, and porpoises (Encyclopædia Britannica). Six species of baleen whales and 10 species of toothed whales are common permanent residents in the NAMMCO management area.

Baleen whale

Any cetacean possessing unique modifications of the mouth called baleen, which is used to filter food from water (Encyclopædia Britannica). There are 6 species of baleen whales in the NAMMCO management area.

Different species of baleen whales (Fin whale, Humpback whale, Minke whale, Bowhead whale)

Rorqual

Largest group of baleen whales, which is characterised by their streamlined bodies and accordion-like folds of skin on their underside (ventral pleats) that stretch when animal feeds by intaking large amount of water at once.

Minke whale body anatomy © Encyclopædia Britannica

Conservation

Attempts to ensure that natural resources (habitats, plants, animals, energy sources) are maintained for future generations to use and enjoy (see also sustainability). Conservation is different from preservation, which completely forbids the use of these resources, while both can be forms of environmental protection. NAMMCO is a conservation organisation, which supports the sustainable use of marine mammals to ensure they remain available in the years to come.

Abundance estimate

The quantification of the total number of whales or seals within a certain population or geographic area. Repeating abundance estimate surveys over time in a specific area is an important tool to understanding if the number of animals is growing or declining over time. This allows scientists and policymakers make informed decisions about conservation strategies and management practices.

Management

In an environmental context, the systems and processes put in place to regulate human activity and minimise its negative interactions with the environment.

Migration

The behaviour in which animals travel from one habitat to another habitat to cover different needs, such as finding better environmental conditions, searching for food or reproducing. For large animals like whales, migration routes can be several thousand kilometres long, while for zooplankton, it is barely tens or hundreds of metres.

Humpback whales migrating in the Pacific Ocean © Darren Jew