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Modern whaling ship © Scanfishfoto.com

Whaling and sealing continue to be a reality for many Northern coastal communities, simply because marine mammals are present, nearby and abundant, and therefore a logical resource in an environment where other resources can be scarce. These animals represent an invaluable resource, bringing food and money, as well as job opportunities in places where non-marine resources are limited and job opportunities few. Marine mammal hunting represents a threat for whale and seal populations only when it is not done sustainably. In NAMMCO member countries it is heavily regulated but still remains controversial for many inside as well as outside. 

Difficult to mitigateEasy to mitigateDifficult to quantifyEasy to quantify

In the past, subsistence and coastal whaling and sealing were conducted in a largely sustainable manner, with hunting efforts and impact limited in scale and geographic extent. Things changed when commercial whaling and sealing began around the 11th century. By the 1600s, fleets were organised, and by the 1860s, new technology made it possible to hunt industrially. This led to over-hunting, causing some species to almost go extinct, and others to be heavily depleted. Industrial whaling and sealing in the late 19th and 20th centuries became an example of how overuse and poor management can harm wildlife.

A whaling ship in 1905 in Svalbard © Hulton Archive/ Getty Images

Today’s hunt is in many ways very different from the industrial whaling and sealing in the past centuries. Managing hunting responsibly means using sustainable practices and the most effective methods for killing the animals. It implies making rules for using resources and implementing reliable monitoring. NAMMCO member countries have set clear rules on which stocks can be hunted, how many animals, when, and how. Each country has its own inspection system to monitor these activities. NAMMCO Observation Scheme also send observers to check if the hunts follow recommendations and oversees national inspections.

Since 1980s the scale of whaling across the world has changed a lot © OurWorldInData.org/Whaling / Data from IWC & Rocha et al. (2014) [2]

References

[1]

[2] Rocha, R. C., Clapham, P. J., & Ivashchenko, Y. V. (2014). Emptying the oceans: a summary of industrial whaling catches in the 20th century. Marine Fisheries Review, 76(4), 37-48. https://doi.org/10.7755/MFR.76.4.3

Discuss

Hunting may be the most apparent anthropogenic pressure that marine mammals face, but other pressures may be more problematic with respect to conservation. What do you think and which ones?

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Kompetencemål: Eleven kan designe, gennemføre og evaluere undersøgelser i biologi.

Undersøgelser i naturfag

Færdighedsmål Vidensområdermål
Eleven kan formulere og undersøge en afgrænset problemstilling med naturfagligt indhold. Eleven har viden om undersøgelsesmetoders anvendelsesmuligheder og begrænsninger.
Eleven kan indsamle og vurdere data fra egne og andres undersøgelser i naturfag. Eleven har viden om indsamling og validering af data.
Eleven kan konkludere og generalisere på baggrund af eget og andres praktiske og undersøgende arbejde. Eleven har viden om kriterierfor evaluering af undersøgelser i naturfag.

Evolution

Færdighedsmål Vidensområdermål
Eleven kan undersøge og forklare organismers tilpasning til levesteder. Eleven har viden om organismers morfologiske, anatomiske og fysiologiske tilpasninger.
Eleven kan forklare organismers tilpasning som reaktion på miljøforandringer. Eleven har viden om miljøforandringers påvirkning af organismers fænotyper og genotyper.
Kompetencemål: Eleven kan designe, gennemføre og evaluere undersøgelser i fysik/kemi.

Undersøgelser i naturfag

Færdighedsmål Vidensområdermål
Eleven kan formulere og undersøge en afgrænset problemstilling med naturfagligt indhold. Eleven har viden om undersøgelsesmetoders anvendelsesmuligheder og begrænsninger.
Eleven kan indsamle og vurdere data fra egne og andres undersøgelser i naturfag. Eleven har viden om indsamling og validering af data.
Eleven kan konkludere og generalisere på baggrund af eget og andres praktiske og undersøgende arbejde. Eleven har viden om kriterierfor evaluering af undersøgelser i naturfag.
Kompetencemål: Eleven kan designe, gennemføre og evaluere undersøgelser i geografi.

Undersøgelser i naturfag

Færdighedsmål Vidensområdermål
Eleven kan formulere og undersøge en afgrænset problemstilling med naturfagligt indhold. Eleven har viden om undersøgelsesmetoders anvendelsesmuligheder og begrænsninger.
Eleven kan indsamle o g vurdere data fra egne og andres undersøgelser i naturfag. Eleven har viden om indsamling og validering af data.
Eleven kan konkludere og generalisere på bag grund af eget og andres praktiske og undersøgende arbejde. Eleven har viden om kriterierfor evaluering af undersøgelser i naturfag.

Kompetencemål: Eleven kan handle med dømmekraft i komplekse situationer med matematik.

Problembehandling

FærdighedsmålVidensområdermål
Eleven kan planlægge og gennemføre problem­ løsningsprocesser.Eleven har viden om elementer i problem­ løsningsprocesser.
Eleven kan vurdere problemløsnings­ processer.Eleven har viden om problemløsnings­ processer.
Kompetencemål: Eleven kan anvende reelle tal og algebraiske udtryk i matematiske undersøgelser.

Problembehandling

Færdighedsmål Vidensområdermål
Eleven kan anvende ikke­lineære funktioner til at beskrive sammen­ hænge og forandringer. Eleven har viden om repræsentationer for ikke­lineære funktioner.
Kompetencemål: Eleven kan designe, gennemføre og evaluere undersøgelser i biologi.

Økosystemer

Færdighedsmål Vidensområdermål
Eleven kan undersøge og sammenligne græsnings- og nedbryderfødekæder i forskellige biotoper. Eleven har viden om fødekæder, fødenet og opbygning og omsætning af organisk stof.

Kompetencemål: Eleven kan anvende og vurdere modeller i biologi.

Økosystemer

FærdighedsmålVidensområdermål
Eleven kan med modeller af økosystemer forklare energistrømme.Eleven har viden om energikrævende livsprocesser hos organismer i økosystemer.

Kompetencemål: Eleven kan perspektivere biologi til omverdenen og relatere indholdet i faget til udvikling af naturvidenskabelig erkendelse.

Økosystemer

FærdighedsmålVidensområdermål
Eleven kan forklare årsager og virkninger af naturlige og menneskeskabte ændringer i økosystemer.Eleven har viden om biologiske, geografiske og fysisk-kemiske forholds påvirkning
af økosystemer.
Eleven kan diskutere miljøpåvirkningers betydning for biodiversitet.Eleven har viden om biodiversitet.

 

Kompetencemål: Eleven kan foretage begrundede valg af fødevarer i forhold til produktion, kvalitet og madoplevelse.

Bæredygtighed

FærdighedsmålVidensområdermål
Eleven kan vurdere fødevareproblematikker.Eleven har viden om industriel fødevareproduktion.
Eleven kan vurdere fødevarers bæredygtighed.Eleven har viden om bæredygtighedskriterierog produktionsforhold.

Kompetencemål: Eleven kan designe, gennemføre og evaluere undersøgelser i biologi.

Undersøgelser i naturfag

FærdighedsmålVidensområdermål
Eleven kan formulere og undersøge en afgrænset problemstilling med naturfagligt indhold.Eleven har viden om undersøgelsesmetoders anvendelsesmuligheder og begrænsninger.
Eleven kan indsamle og vurdere data fra egne og andres undersøgelser i naturfag.Eleven har viden om indsamling og validering af data.
Eleven kan konkludere og generalisere på baggrund af eget og andres praktiske og undersøgende arbejde.Eleven har viden om kriterierfor evaluering af undersøgelser i naturfag.

 

Kompetencemål: Eleven kan perspektivere biologi til omverdenen og relatere indholdet i faget til udvikling af naturvidenskabelig erkendelse.

Perspektivering i naturfag

FærdighedsmålVidensområdermål
Eleven kan beskrive naturfaglige problem- stillinger i den nære omverden.Eleven har viden om aktuelle problemstillinger med naturfagligt indhold.
Eleven kan forklare sammenhænge mellem naturfag og samfundsmæssige problemstillinger og udviklingsmuligheder.Eleven har viden om interessemodsætninger knyttet til bæredygtig udvikling.

Globalisering

FærdighedsmålVidensområdermål
Eleven kan diskutere hand­ lemuligheder for udvikling af et bæredygtigt samfund.Eleven har viden om kriterierfor økologisk, økonomisk og kulturel bæredygtighed.
Kompetencemål: Eleven kan designe, gennemføre og evaluere undersøgelser i fysik/kemi.

Undersøgelser i naturfag

Færdighedsmål Vidensområdermål
Eleven kan formulere og undersøge en afgrænset problemstilling med naturfagligt indhold. Eleven har viden om undersøgelsesmetoders anvendelsesmuligheder og begrænsninger.
Eleven kan indsamle og vurdere data fra egne og andres undersøgelser i naturfag. Eleven har viden om indsamling og validering af data.
Eleven kan konkludere og generalisere på baggrund af eget og andres praktiske og undersøgende arbejde. Eleven har viden om kriterierfor evaluering af undersøgelser i naturfag.
Kompetencemål: Eleven kan perspektivere fysik/kemi til omverdenen og relatere indholdet i faget til udvikling af naturvidenskabelig erkendelse.

Perspektivering i naturfag

Færdighedsmål Vidensområdermål
Eleven kan beskrive naturfaglige problemstillinger i den nære omverden. Eleven har viden om aktuelle problemstillin- ger med naturfagligt indhold.
Eleven kan forklare sammenhænge mellem naturfag og samfundsmæssige problemstillinger og udviklingsmuligheder. Eleven har viden om interessemodsætninger knyttet til bæredygtig udvikling.

Kompetencemål: Eleven kan designe, gennemføre og evaluere undersøgelser i geografi.

Undersøgelser i naturfag

FærdighedsmålVidensområdermål
Eleven kan formulere og undersøge en afgrænset problemstilling med naturfagligt indhold.Eleven har viden om undersøgelsesmetoders anvendelsesmuligheder og begrænsninger.
Eleven kan indsamle o g vurdere data fra egne og andres undersøgelser i naturfag.Eleven har viden om indsamling og validering af data.
Eleven kan konkludere og generalisere på bag grund af eget og andres praktiske og undersøgende arbejde.Eleven har viden om kriterierfor evaluering af undersøgelser i naturfag.

Globalisering

FærdighedsmålVidensområdermål
Eleven kan undersøge forbrugsvares vej fra ressource til butik.Eleven har viden om produktionskæder.
Eleven kan undersøge miljømæssige konsekvenser af ressourceudnyttelse og handelsmønstre.Eleven har viden om metoder til og konsekvenser af ressourceudnyttelse.

Kompetencemål: Eleven kan perspektivere geografi til omverdenen og relatere indholdet i faget til udvikling af naturvidenskabelig erkendelse.

Perspektivering i naturfag

FærdighedsmålVidensområdermål
Eleven kan beskrive natur­faglige problemstillinger i den nære omverden.Eleven har viden om aktuelle problemstillinger med naturfagligt indhold.
Eleven kan forklare sammenhænge mellem naturfag og samfunds­ mæssige problemstillinger og udviklingsmuligheder.Eleven har viden om inter­ essemodsætninger knyttet bæredygtig udvikling.

Globalisering

FærdighedsmålVidensområdermål
Eleven kan diskutere hand­ lemuligheder for udvikling af et bæredygtigt samfund.Eleven har viden om kriterierfor økologisk, økonomisk og kulturel bæredygtighed.

Kompetencemål: Eleven kan handle med dømmekraft i komplekse situationer med matematik.

Problembehandling

FærdighedsmålVidensområdermål
Eleven kan planlægge og gennemføre problem­ løsningsprocesser.Eleven har viden om elementer i problem­ løsningsprocesser.
Eleven kan vurdere problemløsnings­ processer.Eleven har viden om problemløsnings­ processer.

Ræsonnement og tankegang

 

FærdighedsmålVidensområdermål
Eleven kan skelne mellem enkelttilfælde og generaliseringer.Eleven har viden om forskel på generalisere­ de matematiske resul­ tater og resultater, der gælder i enkelttilfælde.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut uumassusilerinermi misissuinissanik aaqqissuisinnaassasut, ingerlatsisinnaassasut nalilersuisinnaassasullu.

Pinngortitalerinermi anguniakkat pingaarnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup nammineq allallu suliaat misissuinerilu tunnga­ vigalugit hypotesit eqqortuun­ nginnerarlugilluunniit eqqor­ tuunerarsinnaavai.Atuartup paasissutissat katersuk­ kat hypotesit eqqortuunnginne­ rarlugit eqqortuunerarlugilluun­ niit oqaatiginissaannut, atuartullu apeqqutaa akinissaanut qanoq atornissaat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Paasisat aallaavigalugit sanilliussinerup iluani uumassusilerineq avatangiisinut sanillersuussinnaassa- gaat, atuartitissutillu imaa pinngortitamut ilisimatusarnermik ineriartortitsinermut sanillersuussinnaas- sagaat.

Pinngortitalerinermi anguniakkat pingaarnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup pinngortitaleriner­ mik ilisimasat najukkani nunarsuarmilu pinngortitale­ rinermi apeqqutinik suliaqar­ nermini atorsinnaavai.Atuartup najukkani nunarsu­ armilu pisuni apeqqutit pinngortitalerinermut tunngasut ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup pinngortitamik ilisimatuussutsip inuiaqati­ giinnilu apeqqutit kiisalu ineriartornissamut periarfissat imminnut sunniivigeqatigiit­ tarnerat nassuiarsinnaavaa.Atuartup pissutsit piujuaan­ nartitsilluni ineriartornermut tunngassuteqartut soqutigisat akerleriissutaalernerannik kinguneqarsinnaasut ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup pinngortitamik ilisimatuussutsimi ilisimasat sooq ineriartortuaannarnerat nassuiarsinnaavaa.Atuartup pinngortitamik ilisimatuussutsimi ilisimalikkat ineriartortinneqarnerisa ingerlanneqartarnerat ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup pinngortitami ataqa­ tigiinnernut sunniutit pinngor­ titami namminermi pisartut inuullu pilersitai, silap pissu­ siata allanngoriartornera ilan­ ngullugu isumaliutigisinnaavai.Atuartup pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit allannguutaasa kinguneri, silap pissusiata allanngoriartornera ilanngul­ lugu ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Timi peqqinnerlu

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup Kalaallit Nunaanni nunanilu allani peqqinnerup, inuusaatsip inuuniarnermilu atugarisat imminnut ataqati­ giinnerat nassuiarsinnaavaa.Atuartup Kalaallit Nunaanni nunanilu allani inuuniarnermi atugarisat ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Isumalluutit piujuaannartitsinerlu

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup piujuartitsinerup isumalluutinillu uumassusilinnik atuinerup imminnut ataqatigiinnerat oqaluttuarisinnaavaa.Atuartup isumalluutinik uumassusilinnik piujuartitsil­ luni atuineq soqutigisaqaqa­ tigiillu aporaattarnerat tamatumunnga tunngasoq ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup inuup pinngorti­ tamut qanoq sunniuteqartar­ nera najugaqarfinnilu pinngortitamut suut suliniutaasinnaanersut isumaliutigisinnaavai.Atuartup najugaqarfinni pinngortitamut suliniutaasinnaasut ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup pinngortitaq eqqarsaatigalugu iliuusissat aalajangersimasut toqqar­ nissaannut tunngavilersuisin­ naavoq.Atuartup inuttut aalajangiussaqartarnerup pingaaruteqarnera ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

 

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Paasisat aallaavigalugit sanilliussinerup iluani fysik-kemii avatangiisinut sanillersuussinnaassagaat, atuartitissutillu imaa pinngortitamut ilisimatusarnermik ineriartortitsinermut sanil­ lersuussinnaassagaat

Pinngortitalerinermi anguniakkat pingaarnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup pinngortitaleri­ nermik ilisimasat najukkani nunarsuarmilu pinngortita­ lerinermi apeqqutinik suliaqarnermini atorsinnaavai.Atuartup najukkani nunarsuarmilu pisuni apeqqutit pinngortitale­ rinermut tunngasut ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup pinngortitamik ilisimatuussutsip inuiaqati­ giinnilu apeqqutit kiisalu ineriartornissamut periarfissat imminnut sunniivigeqatigiittarnerat nassuiarsinnaavaa.Atuartup pissutsit piujuaannartitsilluni ineriartornermut tunngassuteqartut soqutigisat akerleriissutaalernerannik kinguneqarsinnaasut ilisimasaqarfigivai.

 

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Attaveqaqatigiittarnerup iluani pinngortitalerinerup teknologiillu iluanni pisartut oqaloqatigiissutigisinnaas­ sagaat kiisalu namminneq misissukkatik saqqummiussinnaassagaat

Tunngavilersuineq

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup paasissutissat katersat tunngavigalugit misissuinerup inernera tunngavilersorsinnaavaa.Atuartup paasissutissat katersat tunngavilersuinerullu imminnut ataqatigiinnerat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Matematikkip atuuffii

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup nammineq allallu paasissutissat katersugaat diagramminut tulluartunut nuussinnaavai taakkualu pinngortitalerinermik imaat nassuiarsinnaallugit.Atuartup diagrammit tulluartut atornissaat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.
Atuartup naatsorsukkat, inerniliussat saqqummiussallu atuussinnaassusaat sanillius- sinnaavai, nalilersorsinnaavai tunngavilersorsinnaallugillu.Atuartup paasissutissat matematikki atorlugu saqqummiunneqartut misissoqqissaarnissaat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Paasisat aallaavigalugit sanilliussinerup iluani pinngortitaleriffiusumik nunalerineq avatangiisinut sanillersuussinnaassa- gaat, atuartitissutillu imaa pinngortitamut ilisimatusarnermik ineriartortitsinermut sanillersuussin- naassagaat.

Pinngortitalerinermi anguniakkat pingaarnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup pinngortitalerinermik ilisimasat najukkani nunarsuarmilu pinngortitalerinermi apeqqutinik suliaqarnermini atorsinnaavai.Atuartup najukkani nunarsuarmilu pisuni apeqqutit pinngortitalerinermut tunngasut ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup pinngortitamik ilisimatuussutsip inuiaqatigiinnilu apeqqutit kiisalu ineriartornis- samut periarfissat imminnut sunniivigeqatigiittarnerat nassuiarsinnaavaa.Atuartup pissutsit piujuaannar- titsilluni ineriartornermut tunngassuteqartut soqutigisat akerleriissutaalernerannik kinguneqarsinnaasut ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Sila silallu pissusia

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup silap pissusia avatangiisillu eqqarsaatigalugit iliuuseqarsinnaanermut tunngatillugu qanoq toqqaasoqarsinnaanersoq tunngavilersorsinnaavaa.Atuartup silap pissusiata allanngoriartornera inummit pilersitaasoq najukkami nunarsuarmilu avatangiisinut qanoq sunniuteqartarnera ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup silap pissusiata allanngoriartorneranut najukkami nunarsuarmilu aqqiissutissanik siunnersuutit oqaluttuarisinnaavai.Atuartup nunami najugarisami nunarsuarmilu silap pissusiata allanngoriartornerata sunniutaat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

 

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut matema­ tikkimi ulluinnarnilu eqqarsaatigisaria- linni nassuiaanerni misissueqqissaar­ nernilu kisitsisit kisitsisiviusut allanngorartullu atorsinnaassagaat.

Kisitsinermi periutsit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartoq kisitsisit agguarneqarsinnaasut atorlugit ataatsimoortitanik naatsorsuisinnaavoq.Atuartoq matematikkimi ulluinnarnilu suliassanik assigiinngitsunik naammassinninnissamut kisitsisinik agguarneqar- sinnaasunik atuinissaq pillugu ilisimasaqarpoq.
Atuartup kisitsisiviusut atorsinnaavai.Atuartoq kisitsisiviusut pillugit ilisimasaqarpoq, matumunnga ilanngullugu kisitsisit agguarneqarsin­ naanngitsut ilisimallugit.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut naatsor- sueqqissaarluni misissuinernik naliliisinnaassasut aamma naatsor- sueqqissaarnikkut teoretiskimillu ilimanassutsimik atuisinnaassasut.

Pinngortitalerinermi anguniakkat pingaarnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup paasissutissanik ataatsimoortunik misissueqqissaarnissamut kisitsisit paasissutissiissutit diagrammillu naleqquttut toqqarsinnaavai.Atuartoq naatsorsueqqissaarnermi kisitsisinik paasissutis- siissutaasut, diagrammit atortullu digitaliusut paasissutissanik ataatsimoortunik annertuunik passussinermut atorne- qarsinnaasut pillugit ilisimasaqarpoq.
Atuartoq paasissutissanit ataatsimoortunit avatangiisiminut atassusiilluni misissuisinnaavoq.Atuartoq paasissutissat ataatsimoortut ataqatigiinnerannik misissuinissamut periaatsit pillugit ilisimasaqarpoq, matumunnga ilanngullugu atortut digitaliusut ilisimallugit.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut matematik atorlugu pisuni sapernarnerusuni naliliisinnaassu­ seqarlutik iliuuse­ qarsinnaassasut.

Attaveqaqatigiinneq

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartoq matematikki pillugu suliaqarfimmut tunngatillugu eqqorluartumik attaveqaqateqarsin- naavoq, allallu matematikki atorlugu matematikkilu pillugu oqaatigisaat nassuiarsinnaallugit.Atuartoq matematikki pillugu eqqorluartumik attaveqaqatigiinnermi ilisarnaataasartut aamma allat matematikki atorlugu matematikkilu pillugu oqaatigisaasa paasinissaat nassuiarnissa allu pillugit ilisimasaqarpoq.

Paasiniagassanik suliaqarneq

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartoq matematikkimi suliassanik inississuisinnaavoq suliassallu naammas­ siniarsinnaallugit.Atuartoq suliassamik naammassinninniar­ nerup imarisai pillugit ilisimasaqarpoq.

Eqqarsaasersorneq eqqarsariaaserlu

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup pisut ataasiakkaartut ataatsimullu oqaatsi- ginninnerit immikkoortissinnaavai aammalu matematikkimi eqqarsaatersuutit uppernarsaatissaqar- titsinikkut nalilersor- sinnaallugit.Atuartoq matematikkimi ataatsimut oqaatsigisat inerniliussallu pisunut ataasiakkaanut tunngassuteqartut assigiinngissusiat pillugu ilisimasaqarpoq, matematikkimilu uppernarsaatinik pisariitsunik ilisimasaqarluni.

Ikiuutit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup matematikkimi suliassat naammassinis­ saannut ikiuutissat naleqquttut eqqarsaatigilluakkamik nalilersorsinnaavai atorsinnaallugillu.Atuartoq ikiuutissanik assigiinngitsunik atuinermi periarfissat killissallu pillugit ilisimasaqarpoq.

Zooplankton

Animals, that live in the water column but cannot actively swim against currents. While most zooplankton are tiny, like copepods, krill, and the larval stages of larger species, some are much larger, such as salps and jellies. Many species of zooplankton spend daytime in deeper water (avoiding light and predators), moving towards the surface to feed at night, in a process called vertical migration.

Whelping

Giving birth. This term is used for carnivorous species, including pinnipeds. Several species of seal travel to specific whelping grounds (or patches) to give birth.

Tubercles

Large raised “bumps” on the edges of humpback whale flippers. These where shown to make their flippers more hydrodynamic, which helps explain how humpback whales are so agile. Engineers have copied the tubercle effect to improve aerodynamic and hydrodynamic technology.

Subsistence whaling

Not intended to maximise profit but to fulfil the subsistence needs of an individual or community. Compare with commercial whaling.

Sonar beam

Sound energy that is emitted in a cone or fan shape from the sound source, to detect objects the sound will bounce back from.

Sonar tag

An sensor that uses sonar technology to detect what is in the immediate environment of the animal on which it is placed. Putting a sonar tag on a seal, for instance, would reveal the size and movements of the prey it targets, whether it interacts with human-made objects, and so on.

Sonar

Technology that uses sound to detect objects and navigate, usually in the water. It uses the same principles as echolocation in animals, sending out waves of sound that bounce back when they hit an object. Vessels may use sonar to ”see” changes in seafloor depth or find schools of fish. Naval sonar is used to detect submarines.

Seismic exploration

A way to map what lies underground using sound waves and how they are reflected or absorbed by different materials, usually to detect deposits of oil and gas. To explore what is under the seafloor, a ship blasts compressed air (using what is called a seismic airgun) into the water, creating loud sound waves. Part of the sound is absorbed by the different materials underneath the seabed, while the rest is reflected back towards the ship. The shape and intensity of the sound waves that returns indicates what type of materials there are at different depths.

Real-time whale detection system

A setup that detects the presence of whales in a given area at the time they are there and alerts users about them immediately, rather than collecting data for several hours/days/months to be processed later.

Quota

A fixed maximum quantity of a resource that each person or group is allowed to take. For instance, the maximum number of minke whales that Norway and Iceland can hunt each year is their minke whale quota.  

Protection

Efforts and regulations to mitigate harmful impacts on the environment (such as laws that prevent pollution). Protection goes hand in hand with conservation, which refers to maintaining biodiversity through sustainable resource use. In some cases, the only way to protect an ecosystem is through preservation, which forbids humans from using it as a resource. In the context of marine mammal hunting, a protected species means that hunting it is forbidden.  

Plankton

Organisms that float in the water column without strong swimming abilities, i.e., that cannot propel themselves for large distances or against currents. Planktonic life includes phytoplankton, which lives in the surface layers where there is light to photosynthesise, and zooplankton, which can live throughout the water column.

Pile-driving

Hammering long columns of steel, wood, or concrete into the seafloor to create supports for structures like piers, bridges, and wind turbines.

Phytoplankton

Small (generally microscopic) bacteria, protists, and plants that live floating in the water column rather than attached to a surface like the seabed. The base of all marine food webs.

Navigation

Planning a route and moving towards a target while avoiding obstacles.

Larva

(Plural: larvae) Intermediate stage in the development of many animal species, between egg and adulthood. Larvae are often a very different shape from the adults of their species.

Simplified crab life cycle, showing two different larval stages, the zoea and megalopa, that take place before the juvenile and adult phases.

Kelp forest

Important underwater habitats in arctic and subarctic waters. They are large congregations of kelp—a type of brown algae that grows many metres tall—that provide food and safety for many marine species and are recognised as one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth.

Invertebrate

Any animal that doesn’t have a backbone (vertebral column), such as insects, molluscs, worms, sponges, and many, many more. Animals that do have a backbone are called vertebrates—and that list is much shorter.

Intensity (sound)

A sound source in the water causes movement of the water molecules with a certain amount of energy that flows away from the source—this is how sound travels. Acoustic intensity is the amount of this energy that passes through another area of water, in other words, how loud the sound is when it reaches you or another object.

Head-butting

Aggressive or play behaviour in which two animals hit each other head-to-head. This is often seen in goats, sheep, and deer.

Fission-fusion society

A form of social organisation in which groups merge and split up depending on the time of day, year, or activity. Members of a fission-fusion society have few or no stable connections with other members, that is, they don’t always stay together.

Evolution

Changes in the characteristics of a species through the process of natural selection. Organisms with the best suited adaptations for their current environmental conditions pass on their genes to the next generation, and this can often lead to very specialised abilities and behaviours.

Ecology

“The study of relationships between living things and their environment” (British Ecological Society). Marine mammal ecology studies the behaviour, movement patterns, distribution, and abundance of these species as it is influenced by the physical characteristics of the ocean, the availability of food, and human activities.

Detritus

Non-living biological material (organic matter) that is created from decomposing organisms, discarded animal parts like exoskeletons, or feces. In the ocean, detritus sinking slowly through the water column is called marine snow, which is crucial for transporting nutrients from surface waters to deeper zones.

Crustaceans

Primarily aquatic group of arthropods (often with shells or “crusts”), which includes crabs, shrimp, krill, and barnacles, among many others.

Bradycardia

Extremely slow heartrate. Slowing down the heart and pumping blood slower through the body is a way to conserve oxygen when an animal is diving for a long time. Blue whale hearts can beat as slow as two times per minute (Goldbogen et al. 2019)!

Bottom trawling

Using a type of trawl that is dragged along the sea floor to collect benthic species. Because the net is weighted down with heavy beams, this fishing method often breaks or crushes plants and animals that are attached to the seabed.

Biodegradable

A material that can by broken down and returned to the environment through natural processes, such as being consumed by fungi or bacteria.

Benthos

In marine ecosystems, all the organisms that live on, in, or near the sea floor (benthic zone). These often have benthic adaptations, such as flattened bodies or the ability to withstand huge pressure.

Autotroph

Organisms that make their own food through photosynthesis or chemical synthesis, also called primary producers. Plants, algae, and many bacteria, for instance, are autotrophic.

Hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • beitt hugtökum og heitum í náttúruvísindum við fjölbreyttar aðstæður,

Miðlun:

Nemandi getur:

  • kynnt niðurstöður rannsókna, tekið þátt í gagnrýnum umræðum og metið gildi þess að vísindalegum upplýsingum sé miðlað á skýran hátt,

Vistkerfi

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt þarfir lífvera og rætt á gagnrýninn hátt um þróun ólíkra vistkerfa,

Líffræðileg fjölbreytni

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt gildi líffræðilegrar fjölbreytni og tengsl við velferð manna, dýravernd, sjálfbæra þróun og vistkerfin,

Upplifun af náttúrunni

Nemandi getur:

  • gert grein fyrir tengslum sínum við aðrar lífverur og eigin athugunum á hegðun þeirra,

Hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • beitt hugtökum og heitum í náttúruvísindum við fjölbreyttar aðstæður,

Athuganir:

Nemandi getur:

  • framkvæmt, skráð og safnað upplýsingum út frá athugunum og mælingum úti og inni, samkvæmt fyrirmælum og á eigin vegum,

Miðlun:

Nemandi getur:

  • kynnt niðurstöður rannsókna, tekið þátt í gagnrýnum umræðum og metið gildi þess að vísindalegum upplýsingum sé miðlað á skýran hátt,

Hringrásir efna og orku

Nemandi getur:

  • lýst hringrás efna og orku, náttúrulegum ferlum og flæði orku í náttúrunni,

Þróun

Nemandi getur:

  • fjallað um þróun lífvera og tekið dæmi um hvernig lífverur hafa aðlagast umhverfi sínu,

Varmi

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt mismunandi varmaflutning og samspil varma og hitastigs,

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • tekið virkan þátt í samræðum um stærðfræðileg viðfangsefni
  • spurt spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Táknmál og hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • umskráð verkefni úr daglegu lífi og notað til þess táknmál og hugtök stærðfræðinnar

Þrautalausnir

Nemandi getur:

  • notað fjölbreyttar aðferðir við leit að lausnum, t.d. myndræna framsetningu

Rannsóknarvinna

Nemandi getur:

  • unnið í samvinnu að stærðfræðilegum rannsóknum með því að skipuleggja og velja viðeigandi aðferðir til að kanna tilgátu eða spurningu

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • tekið virkan þátt í samræðum um stærðfræðileg viðfangsefni
  • spurt spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Táknmál og hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • umskráð verkefni úr daglegu lífi og notað til þess táknmál og hugtök stærðfræðinnar

Þrautalausnir

Nemandi getur:

  • notað fjölbreyttar aðferðir við leit að lausnum, t.d. vinna sig til baka til að leysa þraut

Rannsóknarvinna

Nemandi getur:

  • unnið í samvinnu að stærðfræðilegum rannsóknum með því að skipuleggja og velja viðeigandi aðferðir til að kanna tilgátu eða spurningu
  • sett fram rannsóknarspurningu sem byggir á stærðfræðilegri hugsun og hægt er að vinna úr með t.d. mælingum, líkindum eða öðrum útreikningum
  • sett fram tilgátur um stærðfræðileg efni sem byggja á athugunum

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • tekið virkan þátt í samræðum um stærðfræðileg viðfangsefni
  • spurt gagnrýninna spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Táknmál og hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • umskráð verkefni úr daglegu lífi og notað til þess táknmál og hugtök stærðfræðinnar

Þrautalausnir

Nemandi getur:

  • notað fjölbreyttar aðferðir við leit að lausnum, t.d. leita að mynstri eða reglu

Rannsóknarvinna

Nemandi getur:

  • unnið í samvinnu að stærðfræðilegum rannsóknum með því að skipuleggja og velja viðeigandi aðferðir til að kanna tilgátu eða spurningu

Hnitakerfi

Nemandi getur:

  • notað gröf beinna lína til að greina raunveruleg sambönd, t.d. verð eftir magni, hraða eða tímalengd og finna lausnir á einföldum jöfnum

Jöfnur og ójöfnur

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt lausnir sínar með því að prófa þær og setja í raunverulegt samhengi

Jöfnur og ójöfnur

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt lausnir sínar með því að prófa þær og setja í raunverulegt samhengi

Jöfnur og ójöfnur

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt lausnir sínar með því að prófa þær og setja í raunverulegt samhengi

Gagnavinnsla

Nemandi getur:

  • sagt frá helstu niðurstöðum með orðum, töflum og myndritum og borið saman breytingar á flokkum, t.d. breytingar á fólksfjölda á ákveðnu svæði eftir tímabilum

Myndrit

Nemandi getur:

  • lesið úr myndritum og útskýrt hvaða upplýsingar koma fram í þeim
  • túlkað og metið upplýsingar og breytingar sem koma fram í myndritum

Gagnavinnsla

Nemandi getur:

  • dregið ályktanir af niðurstöðum sínum, t..d. áhrif farsótta, harðinda, náttúruhamfara eða breyttra atvinnuhátta á mannfjöldatölur

Myndrit

Nemandi getur:

  • lesið úr myndritum og útskýrt hvaða upplýsingar koma fram í þeim
  • túlkað og metið upplýsingar og breytingar sem koma fram í myndritum

Myndrit

Nemandi getur:

  • lesið úr myndritum og útskýrt hvaða upplýsingar koma fram í þeim
  • túlkað og metið upplýsingar og breytingar sem koma fram í myndritum

Mælieiningar

Nemandi getur:

  • skráð niðurstöður með samsettum mælieiningum, t.d. fundið hraða (km/klst.), kílóverð (kr/kg) og borið saman mismunandi hraða eða verð

Mælieiningar

Nemandi getur:

  • skráð niðurstöður með samsettum mælieiningum, t.d. fundið hraða (km/klst.), kílóverð (kr/kg) og borið saman mismunandi hraða eða verð

Hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • beitt hugtökum og heitum í náttúruvísindum við fjölbreyttar aðstæður,

Miðlun

Nemandi getur:

  • kynnt niðurstöður rannsókna, tekið þátt í gagnrýnum umræðum og metið gildi þess að vísindalegum upplýsingum sé miðlað á skýran hátt,

Kortalæsi

Nemandi getur:

  • greint, þekkt og fjallað um upplýsingar á kortum, gröfum og annars konar myndum og sett upp kort til að miðla fjölbreyttum upplýsingum,

Verkfæri og hlutbundin gögn

Nemandi getur:

  • valið og notað viðeigandi verkfæri út frá verkefni og útskýrt af hverju þau henta, t.d. vasareikni, hnitakerfi og ýmis stöðluð og óstöðluð mælitæki

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • spurt spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • spurt spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • spurt gagnrýninna spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Hnitakerfi

Nemandi getur:

  • teiknað gröf beinna lína með því að setja upp gildistöflu og skrá hnitin í hnitakerfi

Assesment

Scientific evaluation of a species, population, or stock, to determine its health status based on what is known about its abundance, demographics, genetics, distribution over time, and what disturbances it is subjected to. This tells us whether (and how much) it is at risk from ecological or anthropogenic pressures.

Athuganir:

Nemandi getur:

  • framkvæmt, skráð og safnað upplýsingum út frá athugunum og mælingum úti og inni, samkvæmt fyrirmælum og á eigin vegum,

Miðlun:

Nemandi getur:

  • kynnt niðurstöður rannsókna, tekið þátt í gagnrýnum umræðum og metið gildi þess að vísindalegum upplýsingum sé miðlað á skýran hátt,

Vísindaleg vinnubrögð

Nemandi getur:

  • sett fram vísindalega tilgátu og beitt margvíslegum vísindalegum vinnubrögðum til að kanna hana í þekkingarleit og úrvinnslu verkefna,

Líffræðileg fjölbreytni

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt gildi líffræðilegrar fjölbreytni og tengsl við velferð manna, dýravernd, sjálfbæra þróun og vistkerfin,

Náttúruauðlindir og sjálfbær nýting

Nemandi getur:

  • gert grein fyrir verndun og nýtingu náttúruauðlinda í tengslum við sjálfbæra þróun, sjálfbæra nýtingu og rýnt í eigin neysluvenjur,

Kortalæsi

Nemandi getur:

  • greint, þekkt og fjallað um upplýsingar á kortum, gröfum og annars konar myndum og sett upp kort til að miðla fjölbreyttum upplýsingum,

Samfélög

Nemandi getur:

  • greint og borið saman ólíka menningarheima og samfélög, trúarbrögð, hefðir og siði, aðstæður og líf fólks,

Auðlindir

Nemandi getur:

  • varpað ljósi á hvers vegna sjálfbær nýting auðlinda er mikilvæg fyrir samfélög og í hnattrænu samhengi,

Neyslusamfélagið

Nemandi getur:

  • varpað ljósi á neyslusamfélag nútímans, ferli hráefna frá öflun til eyðingar og hugmyndum um mikilvægi hringrásarhagkerfis,

Sjálfbær þróun

Nemandi getur:

  • sýnt fram á skilning á sjálfbærri þróun og þýðingu hennar fyrir umhverfi, samfélag og efnahagslíf og lífsskilyrði alls lífs á jörðinni,

Verkfæri og hlutbundin gögn

Nemandi getur:

  • valið og notað viðeigandi verkfæri út frá verkefni og útskýrt af hverju þau henta, t.d. vasareikni, hnitakerfi og ýmis stöðluð og óstöðluð mælitæki

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • tekið virkan þátt í samræðum um stærðfræðileg viðfangsefni
  • spurt spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Táknmál og hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • umskráð verkefni úr daglegu lífi og notað til þess táknmál og hugtök stærðfræðinnar

Þrautalausnir

Nemandi getur:

  • notað fjölbreyttar aðferðir við leit að lausnum, t.d. myndræna framsetningu

Rannsóknarvinna

Nemandi getur:

  • unnið sjálfstætt að stærðfræðilegum rannsóknum með því að skipuleggja og velja viðeigandi aðferðir til að kanna tilgátu eða spurningu
  • unnið í samvinnu að stærðfræðilegum rannsóknum með því að skipuleggja og velja viðeigandi aðferðir til að kanna tilgátu eða spurningu
  • sett fram rannsóknarspurningu sem byggir á stærðfræðilegri hugsun og hægt er að vinna úr með t.d. mælingum, líkindum eða öðrum útreikningum

Kynningar

Nemandi getur:

  • undirbúið og flutt kynningu fyrir hóp þar sem hann sýnir og útskýrir stærðfræðivinnu sína

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • tekið virkan þátt í samræðum um stærðfræðileg viðfangsefni
  • spurt spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Táknmál og hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • umskráð verkefni úr daglegu lífi og notað til þess táknmál og hugtök stærðfræðinnar

Þrautalausnir

Nemandi getur:

  • notað fjölbreyttar aðferðir við leit að lausnum, t.d. vinna sig til baka til að leysa þraut

Rannsóknarvinna

Nemandi getur:

  • sett fram rannsóknarspurningu sem byggir á stærðfræðilegri hugsun og hægt er að vinna úr með t.d. mælingum, líkindum eða öðrum útreikningum
  • sett fram tilgátur um stærðfræðileg efni sem byggja á athugunum

Kynningar

Nemandi getur:

  • undirbúið og flutt kynningu fyrir hóp þar sem hann sýnir og útskýrir stærðfræðivinnu sína

Samræður og tjáning

Nemandi getur:

  • tekið virkan þátt í samræðum um stærðfræðileg viðfangsefni
  • spurt gagnrýninna spurninga til að dýpka skilning, byggja ofan á fyrri þekkingu og/eða kalla eftir frekari útskýringum

Táknmál og hugtök

Nemandi getur:

  • umskráð verkefni úr daglegu lífi og notað til þess táknmál og hugtök stærðfræðinnar

Þrautalausnir

Nemandi getur:

  • notað fjölbreyttar aðferðir við leit að lausnum, t.d. leita að mynstri eða reglu

Rannsóknarvinna

Nemandi getur:

  • unnið sjálfstætt að stærðfræðilegum rannsóknum með því að skipuleggja og velja viðeigandi aðferðir til að kanna tilgátu eða spurningu
  • unnið í samvinnu að stærðfræðilegum rannsóknum með því að skipuleggja og velja viðeigandi aðferðir til að kanna tilgátu eða spurningu
  • sett fram rannsóknarspurningu sem kallar á greiningu gagna eða líkana og tengir við fyrri þekkingu
  • sett fram tilgátur um stærðfræðileg efni sem byggja á athugunum og rökstuðningi

Kynningar

Nemandi getur:

  • undirbúið og flutt kynningu fyrir hóp þar sem hann sýnir og útskýrir stærðfræðivinnu sína

Hnitakerfi

Nemandi getur:

  • notað gröf beinna lína til að greina raunveruleg sambönd, t.d. verð eftir magni, hraða eða tímalengd og finna lausnir á einföldum jöfnum

Jöfnur og ójöfnur

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt lausnir sínar með því að prófa þær og setja í raunverulegt samhengi

Jöfnur og ójöfnur

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt lausnir sínar með því að prófa þær og setja í raunverulegt samhengi

Jöfnur og ójöfnur

Nemandi getur:

  • útskýrt lausnir sínar með því að prófa þær og setja í raunverulegt samhengi

Gagnavinnsla

Nemandi getur:

  • nýtt sér töluleg gögn úr tilbúnu gagnasafni til að finna ákveðnar upplýsingar, t.d. gögn hjá Hagstofu Íslands
  • sagt frá helstu niðurstöðum með orðum, töflum og myndritum og borið saman breytingar á flokkum, t.d. breytingar á fólksfjölda á ákveðnu svæði eftir tímabilum

Myndrit

Nemandi getur:

  • lesið úr myndritum og útskýrt hvaða upplýsingar koma fram í þeim
  • túlkað og metið upplýsingar og breytingar sem koma fram í myndritum

Gagnavinnsla

Nemandi getur:

  • nýtt sér gögn úr tilbúnu gagnasafni til að finna ákveðnar upplýsingar
  • dregið ályktanir af niðurstöðum sínum, t..d. áhrif farsótta, harðinda, náttúruhamfara eða breyttra atvinnuhátta á mannfjöldatölur

Myndrit

Nemandi getur:

  • lesið úr myndritum og útskýrt hvaða upplýsingar koma fram í þeim
  • túlkað og metið upplýsingar og breytingar sem koma fram í myndritum

Gagnavinnsla

Nemandi getur:

  • nýtt sér gögn úr tilbúnu gagnasafni til að finna ákveðnar upplýsingar

Myndrit

Nemandi getur:

  • lesið úr myndritum og útskýrt hvaða upplýsingar koma fram í þeim
  • túlkað og metið upplýsingar og breytingar sem koma fram í myndritum

Mælieiningar

Nemandi getur:

  • skráð niðurstöður með samsettum mælieiningum, t.d. fundið hraða (km/klst.), kílóverð (kr/kg) og borið saman mismunandi hraða eða verð

Mælieiningar

Nemandi getur:

  • skráð niðurstöður með samsettum mælieiningum, t.d. fundið hraða (km/klst.), kílóverð (kr/kg) og borið saman mismunandi hraða eða verð

Mælieiningar

Nemandi getur:

  • beitt samsettum mælieiningum við stærðfræðileg viðfangsefni, t.d. við útreikninga á hraða, tíma, vegalengd, fermetraverði, efnismagni eða meðalhraða, og túlkað niðurstöður í samræmi við samhengi

Eftir loknan 9. flokk dugir næmingurin:

  • at eyðmerkja eitt stað á jørðini við longd og breidd 

Landafrøðiligar keldur og amboð

Næmingurin dugir:

  • at lesa signaturar (tekn/merki) og hava kunnleika til skipanina við longdar- og breiddarstigum, umframt kunnleika til tíðarsonur, miðkring, vendikring, støddarlutfall, hæddar- og dýpislinjur, umframt at kenna høvuðsprojektiónirnar 

Náttúran

Næmingurin dugir:

  • at lýsa samspælið í náttúruni millum livandi verur og teirra umhvørvi

Alisfrøði og evnafrøði 7.-9. floksstig

Málið við undirvísingini er, at næmingurin við støði í kjarnaøkjunum dugir:

  • at nýta hóskandi eindir í sambandi við útrokningar 
  • at eksperimentera, eygleiða og finna møguligar loysnir við støði í givnum greiðsluevni 

Matur og umhvørvi

Næmingurin skal duga:

  • at meta um matvørur við atliti at tíðar- og orkunýtslu
  • at samanbera og meta um dygdina á heimagjørdum matvørum í mun til  ídnaðarframleiddar matvørur
  • atl gerast tilvitaður um hvørja ávirkan valið av matvørum og nýtsluvørum hevur á heimliga og alheims umhvørvið

Náttúran

Næmingurin dugir:

  • at meta um, hvørt menniskjan brúkar náttúruna á burðardyggan hátt
  • at leggja til rættis, fremja og og eftirmeta einfaldar kanningar og royndir í ymiskum búøkjum og í starvsstovu

Næmingurin skal duga:

  • At lesa og endurgeva einfaldar hugtaksmyndlar. At knýta hugtaksmyndlar til kvantitativa og kvalitativa vitan.

Málið við undirvísingini er, at næmingurin dugir:

  • at skapa og gjøgnumføra støddfrøðilig modell av veruligum trupulleikum 
  • at skifta millum at orða seg á støddfrøðimáli og á gerandismáli 

Málið við undirvísingini er, at næmingurin dugir:

  • at meta um støddfrøðiligt arbeiði og loysnir bæði hjá sær sjálvum og hjá øðrum

Málið við undirvísingini er, at næmingurin dugir:

  • at brúka støddfrøði til at gera kanningar 
  • kritiskt at tulka og meta um, tá ið onnur brúka støddfrøði, og skilja, hvussu støddfrøði kann verða brúkt til at bera fram ymisk sjónarmið 

Alisfrøði og evnafrøði 7-9

Málið við undirvísingini er, at næmingurin við støði í kjarnaøkjunum dugir:

  • við dømum at miðla og vísa innlit í alisfrøðilig og evnafrøðilig evni 
  • at nýta hóskandi eindir í sambandi við útrokningar 
  • at eksperimentera, eygleiða og finna møguligar loysnir við støði í givnum greiðsluevni 
  • at seta spurningar og gera hypotesur um alisfrøðilig og evnafrøðilig fyribrigdi, eyðmerkja bundnar og óbundnar variablar (broytilig viðurskifti) og savna inn dátur til tess at finna svar 
  • at seta orð á, hvussu alisfrøðilig og evnafrøðilig fyribrigdi síggjast/verða nýtt í gerandis- og samfelagshøpi 

Næmingurin dugir:

  • at skráseta og viðgera dátur og eygleiðingar, og greiða frá royndum, bæði munnliga og skrivliga

Náttúran

Næmingurin dugir:

  • at lýsa samspælið í náttúruni millum livandi verur og teirra umhvørvi
  • at leggja til rættis, fremja og og eftirmeta einfaldar kanningar og royndir í ymiskum búøkjum og í starvsstovu

Ílegurnar

Næmingurin dugir:

  • menningarlæruna í høvuðsheitum, herundir fyribrigdi so sum kapping, tillaging, úrbregði, frábrigdi, avbyrging og úrveljing
Náttúran Næmingurin dugir:
  • at nýta kunningartøkni at leita eftir upplýsingum at finna lívfrøðiligar loysnir
  • at geva dømi um nýggjari lívfrøðiliga gransking, sum hevur havt týdning fyri viðurskiftini hjá menniskjum.

Málið við undirvísingini er, at næmingurin dugir:

  • at skapa og gjøgnumføra støddfrøðilig modell av veruligum trupulleikum 
  • at skifta millum at orða seg á støddfrøðimáli og á gerandismáli 

Málið við undirvísingini er, at næmingurin dugir:

  • at meta um støddfrøðiligt arbeiði og loysnir bæði hjá sær sjálvum og hjá øðrum

Málið við undirvísingini er, at næmingurin dugir:

  • at brúka støddfrøði til at gera kanningar 
  • kritiskt at tulka og meta um, tá ið onnur brúka støddfrøði, og skilja, hvussu støddfrøði kann verða brúkt til at bera fram ymisk sjónarmið

Lívfrøði 7-9

Náttúran

Næmingurin dugir:

  • í høvuðsheitum at lýsa eina vistskipan
  • at lýsa samspælið í náttúruni millum livandi verur og teirra umhvørvi
  • at greiða frá føðiketum og føðinetum

Ílegurnar

Næmingurin dugir:

  • menningarlæruna í høvuðsheitum, herundir fyribrigdi so sum kapping, tillaging, úrbregði, frábrigdi, avbyrging og úrveljing

Náttúran

Næmingurin dugir:

  • at greiða frá natúrligum og mannagjørdum broytingum í vistskipanum og avleiddu ávirkanunum á lívfrøðiliga fjølbroytnið

Biologi (BIO01‑02)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planleggje og gjennomføre undersøkingar, samle, behandle og tolke data, og presentere resultat og funn
  • utforske kva konsekvensar endringar i klima og arealutnytting kan ha for det biologiske mangfaldet, og drøfte tiltak for ei meir berekraftig forvaltning

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske ei biologisk problemstilling, analysere innsamla data, argumentere for val av metodar og drøfte resultat og funn

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • drøfte konsekvenser av klimaendringer for enkeltmennesker, samfunn og økosystem, og vurdere bærekraftige løsninger for hvordan enkeltmennesker og samfunn kan redusere og tilpasse seg klimaendringer i nåtid og framtid 

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • reflektere over eigen ressursbruk og ressursbruken i Noreg i eit globalt og berekraftig perspektiv 
  • utforske kva endringar i klimaet har å seie for natur og samfunn lokalt, regionalt eller globalt 

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planlegge og gjennomføre et selvstendig arbeid med reelle datasett knyttet til naturvitenskapelige temaer og forhold, og analysere og presentere funn

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planlegge og gjennomføre et selvstendig arbeid med reelle datasett knyttet til samfunnsøkonomiske temaer og forhold, og analysere og presentere funn 

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske, analysere og drøfte dagsaktuelle problemstillinger knyttet til bærekraft og fordeling

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • gjøre rede for sammenhengen mellom ressurser, lokalisering av økonomisk aktivitet, globalisering og bærekraftig utvikling, og drøfte årsaker og konsekvenser av dette på ulike geografiske nivåer 
  • reflektere over hvordan lokale og globale forskjeller i levekår oppstår, og bruke utviklingsteorier til å drøfte ulike handlingsalternativer for utvikling av samfunn 

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • drøfte korleis personleg økonomi, kommersiell påverknad og forbruk påverkar enkeltpersonar, grupper og samfunnet 

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • drøfte sammenhenger mellom sosiale prosesser og sosial ulikhet på individ- og samfunnsnivå, og muligheter for å skape bærekraftige samfunn 

Biologi (BIO01‑02)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planleggje og gjennomføre undersøkingar, samle, behandle og tolke data, og presentere resultat og funn
  • utforske samanhengar mellom anatomi og fysiologi og gjere greie for prinsippa for livsprosessane i organismar 
  • utforske abiotiske og biotiske faktorar i eit økosystem, drøfte samanhengar som forklarer det biologiske mangfaldet og reflekter over naturens eigenverdi
  • utforske kva konsekvensar endringar i klima og arealutnytting kan ha for det biologiske mangfaldet, og drøfte tiltak for ei meir berekraftig forvaltning

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske ei biologisk problemstilling, analysere innsamla data, argumentere for val av metodar og drøfte resultat og funn

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planlegge og gjennomføre forsøk, analysere data og trekke konklusjoner
  • forstå begrepet temperatur og forklare hvordan tilført varme til et system fører til temperaturendring i dette systemet

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planlegge og gjennomføre et selvstendig arbeid med reelle datasett knyttet til naturvitenskapelige temaer og forhold, og analysere og presentere funn

Biologi (BIO01‑02)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planleggje og gjennomføre undersøkingar, samle, behandle og tolke data, og presentere resultat og funn
  • utforske abiotiske og biotiske faktorar i eit økosystem, drøfte samanhengar som forklarer det biologiske mangfaldet og reflekter over naturens eigenverdi
  • utforske kva konsekvensar endringar i klima og arealutnytting kan ha for det biologiske mangfaldet, og drøfte tiltak for ei meir berekraftig forvaltning

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og dokumentere artsmangfald gjennom feltarbeid, drøfte resultat og funn og vurdere korleis artane er tilpassa økosystemet dei lever i
  • gjere greie for energistraum og sentrale stoffkrinsløp

Biologi (BIO01‑02)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planleggje og gjennomføre undersøkingar, samle, behandle og tolke data, og presentere resultat og funn
  • utforske abiotiske og biotiske faktorar i eit økosystem, drøfte samanhengar som forklarer det biologiske mangfaldet og reflekter over naturens eigenverdi
  • utforske kva konsekvensar endringar i klima og arealutnytting kan ha for det biologiske mangfaldet, og drøfte tiltak for ei meir berekraftig forvaltning

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og dokumentere artsmangfald gjennom feltarbeid, drøfte resultat og funn og vurdere korleis artane er tilpassa økosystemet dei lever i

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • drøfte konsekvenser av klimaendringer for enkeltmennesker, samfunn og økosystem, og vurdere bærekraftige løsninger for hvordan enkeltmennesker og samfunn kan redusere og tilpasse seg klimaendringer i nåtid og framtid 

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og presentere geografiske forhold og prosessar ved å bruke ulike kjelder, inkludert kart
  • utforske kva endringar i klimaet har å seie for natur og samfunn lokalt, regionalt eller globalt

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planlegge og gjennomføre et selvstendig arbeid med reelle datasett knyttet til naturvitenskapelige temaer og forhold, og analysere og presentere funn

Overgrazed kelp forest

 Sea urchins are one of the species that feed on kelp. When the population of sea urchins grow uncontrollably, due to their predators being removed from the food web, they overfeed on these forests and cause them to disappear, destroying the entire ecosystem. Once the kelp is gone, it is replaced by other algal species that don’t have the same function as kelp.

(A) Healthy sugar kelp forest along the southern coast of Norway © K. Filbee-Dexter (B) Once kelp forest, now the seafloor is covered by a dense carpet of turf algae and rare kelp plant © T. Wernberg

Naturfag (NAT01‑04)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • analysere og bruke innsamlede data til å lage forklaringer, drøfte forklaringene i lys av relevant teori og vurdere kvaliteten på egne og andres utforskinger 
  • gi eksempler på dagsaktuell forskning og drøfte hvordan ny kunnskap genereres gjennom samarbeid og kritisk tilnærming til eksisterende kunnskap

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • bruke, forklare og lage formler uttrykt med ord og symboler med utgangspunkt i en praktisk problemstilling  

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • bearbeide, analysere og kritisk granske innhentede data alene og sammen med andre

Ideer og praktisk forskning (FIP01‑02)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og drøfte egne og andres ideer og problemstillinger, og formulere spørsmål og hypoteser som grunnlag for videre undersøkelser
  • bearbeide, analysere og kritisk granske innhentede data alene og sammen med andre

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og reflektere over forskjeller og likheter mellom egne og andre menneskers kulturer, holdninger og levemåter i dialog med mennesker i andre land
  • drøfte etiske problemstillinger som gjelder menneskerettigheter, miljø eller forskjeller i levekår og utforske tiltak som kan bidra til å løse disse problemene

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • lage og løyse problem som omhandlar samansette måleiningar
  • lage, løyse og forklare likningar knytte til praktiske situasjonar

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og argumentere for korleis framstillingar av tal og data kan brukast for å fremje ulike synspunk

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • lage, løyse og forklare likningssett knytte til praktiske situasjonar
  • modellere situasjonar knytte til reelle datasett, presentere resultata og argumentere for at modellane er gyldige

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • bruke, forklare og lage formler uttrykt med ord og symboler med utgangspunkt i en praktisk problemstilling
  • tolke og diskutere statistiske framstillinger knyttet til bærekraftig utvikling

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske klimaavtrykket til matvarer og gjere greie for korleis matval og matforbruk kan påverke miljøet, klimaet og matsikkerheita

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • analysere og bruke innsamlede data til å lage forklaringer, drøfte forklaringene i lys av relevant teori og vurdere kvaliteten på egne og andres utforskinger
  • gi eksempler på dagsaktuell forskning og drøfte hvordan ny kunnskap genereres gjennom samarbeid og kritisk tilnærming til eksisterende kunnskap

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • beskrive ulike dimensjonar ved berekraftig utvikling og korleis dei påverkar kvarandre, og presentere tiltak for meir berekraftige samfunn

Naturfag (NAT01‑04)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • stille spørsmål og lage hypoteser om naturfaglige fenomener, identifisere avhengige og uavhengige variabler og samle data for å finne svar 
  • utforske sammenhenger mellom abiotiske og biotiske faktorer i et økosystem og diskutere hvordan energi og materie omdannes i kretsløp

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • lage, løyse og forklare likningar knytte til praktiske situasjonar

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • stille spørsmål og lage hypoteser om naturfaglige fenomener, identifisere avhengige og uavhengige variabler og samle data for å finne svar
  • analysere og bruke innsamlede data til å lage forklaringer, drøfte forklaringene i lys av relevant teori og vurdere kvaliteten på egne og andres utforskinger
  • gi eksempler på dagsaktuell forskning og drøfte hvordan ny kunnskap genereres gjennom samarbeid og kritisk tilnærming til eksisterende kunnskap
  • utforske sammenhenger mellom abiotiske og biotiske faktorer i et økosystem og diskutere hvordan energi og materie omdannes i kretsløp
Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut uumassusilerinermi misissuinissanik aaqqissuisinnaassasut, ingerlatsisinnaassasut nalilersuisinnaassasullu.

Pinngortitalerinermi anguniakkat pingaarnerit

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartup misissuinerit ilusiler­ sorsinnaavai paasissutissallu nammineq allallu misissuine­ rannit pisut katersorsinnaallu­ git, uppernarsarsinnaallugillu nalilersorsinnaavai. Atuartup pinngortitalerinermi misissuinerni periutsit, paasis­ sutissanik katersisarneq, upper­ narsaasiisarneq nalilersuisarner­ lu kiisalu misissuinerup allan­ ngorartortaasa pingaarutaat ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup nammineq allallu suliaat misissuinerilu tunnga­ vigalugit hypotesit eqqortuun­ nginnerarlugilluunniit eqqor­ tuunerarsinnaavai. Atuartup paasissutissat katersuk­ kat hypotesit eqqortuunnginne­ rarlugit eqqortuunerarlugilluun­ niit oqaatiginissaannut, atuartullu apeqqutaa akinissaanut qanoq atornissaat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Allanngoriartorneq (Evolutioni)

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartup uumassusillit uumaffigisaminni pissutsinut naleqqussartarnerat misissorsinnaavaa Atuartup uumassusillit naleqqussartarnerat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.
Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut fysik-kemiimi misissuinissanik aaqqissuisinnaassasut, ingerlatsisinnaassasut nalilersuisinnaassasullu.

Pinngortitalerinermi anguniakkat pingaarnerit

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartup misissuinerit ilusilersorsinnaavai paasissutissallu nammineq allallu misissuinerannit pisut katersorsinnaallugit, uppernarsarsinnaallugillu nalilersorsinnaavai. Atuartup pinngortitalerinermi misissuinerni periutsit, paasis- sutissanik katersisarneq, uppernarsaasiisarneq naliler- suisarnerlu kiisalu misissuinerup allanngorartortaasa pingaaru- taat ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup nammineq allallu suliaat misissuinerilu tunngavigalugit hypotesit eqqortuunnginnerarlugilluun- niit eqqortuunerarsinnaavai. Atuartup paasissutissat katersukkat hypotesit eqqor- tuunnginnerarlugit eqqor- tuunerarlugilluunniit oqaatigi­ nissaannut, atuartullu apeqqutaa akinissaanut qanoq atornissaat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Attaveqaqatigiittarnerup iluani pinngortitalerinerup teknologiillu iluanni pisartut oqaloqatigiissutigisinnaas­ sagaat kiisalu namminneq misissukkatik saqqummiussinnaassagaat.

Tunngavilersuineq

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup paasissutissat katersat tunngavigalugit misissuinerup inernera tunngavilersorsinnaavaa.Atuartup paasissutissat katersat tunngavilersuinerullu imminnut ataqatigiinnerat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Matematikkip atuuffii

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup nammineq allallu paasissutissat katersugaat diagramminut tulluartunut nuussinnaavai taakkualu pinngortitalerinermik imaat nassuiarsinnaallugit.Atuartup diagrammit tulluartut atornissaat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.
Atuartup naatsorsukkat, inerniliussat saqqummiussallu atuussinnaassusaat sanillius- sinnaavai, nalilersorsinnaavai tunngavilersorsinnaallugillu.Atuartup paasissutissat matematikki atorlugu saqqummiunneqartut misissoqqissaarnissaat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut pinngortitaleriffiusumik nunalerinermi misissuinissanik aaqqissuisinnaassasut, ingerlatsisinnaassasut nalilersuisinnaassasullu.

Pinngortitalerinermi anguniakkat pingaarnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup misissuinerit ilusilersorsinnaavai paasissutis- sallu nammineq allallu misissuinerannit pisut katersorsinnaallugit, uppernarsarsinnaallugillu nalilersorsinnaavai.Atuartup pinngortitalerinermi misissuinerni periutsit, paasissu- tissanik katersisarneq, upper- narsaasiisarneq nalilersuisarnerlu kiisalu misissuinerup allanngorar- tortaasa pingaarutaat ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup nammineq allallu suliaat misissuinerilu tunngaviga- lugit hypotesit eqqortuunnginnerarlugilluunniit eqqortuunerarsinnaavai.Atuartup paasissutissat katersuk- kat hypotesit eqqortuunnginnerar- lugit eqqortuunerarlugilluunniit oqaatiginissaannut, atuartullu apeqqutaa akinissaanut qanoq atornissaat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.
Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut matema­ tikkimi ulluinnarnilu eqqarsaatigisaria- linni nassuiaanerni misissueqqissaar­ nernilu kisitsisit kisitsisiviusut allanngorartullu atorsinnaassagaat.

Funktionit

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartup ataqatigiinnerit allanngornerillu nassuiarnissaannut funktionit titarneri narlusuujunngitsut atorsinnaavai. Atuartoq funktionit titarnerisa narlusuujunngitsut takussutissiorneqarnerat pillugu ilisimasaqarpoq.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut naatsor- sueqqissaarluni misissuinernik naliliisinnaassasut aamma naatsor- sueqqissaarnikkut teoretiskimillu ilimanassutsimik atuisinnaassasut.

Pinngortitalerinermi anguniakkat pingaarnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup paasissutissanik ataatsimoortunik misissueqqissaarnissamut kisitsisit paasissutissiissutit diagrammillu naleqquttut toqqarsinnaavai.Atuartoq naatsorsueqqissaarnermi kisitsisinik paasissutis- siissutaasut, diagrammit atortullu digitaliusut paasissutissanik ataatsimoortunik annertuunik passussinermut atorne- qarsinnaasut pillugit ilisimasaqarpoq.
Atuartoq paasissutissanit ataatsimoortunit avatangiisiminut atassusiilluni misissuisinnaavoq.Atuartoq paasissutissat ataatsimoortut ataqatigiinnerannik misissuinissamut periaatsit pillugit ilisimasaqarpoq, matumunnga ilanngullugu atortut digitaliusut ilisimallugit.
Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut uumassusilerinermi misissuinissanik aaqqissuisinnaassasut, ingerlatsisinnaassasut nalilersuisinnaassasullu.

Pinngortitalerinermi anguniakkat pingaarnerit

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartup misissuinerit ilusiler­ sorsinnaavai paasissutissallu nammineq allallu misissuine­ rannit pisut katersorsinnaallu­ git, uppernarsarsinnaallugillu nalilersorsinnaavai. Atuartup pinngortitalerinermi misissuinerni periutsit, paasis­ sutissanik katersisarneq, upper­ narsaasiisarneq nalilersuisarner­ lu kiisalu misissuinerup allan­ ngorartortaasa pingaarutaat ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup nammineq allallu suliaat misissuinerilu tunnga­ vigalugit hypotesit eqqortuun­ nginnerarlugilluunniit eqqor­ tuunerarsinnaavai. Atuartup paasissutissat katersuk­ kat hypotesit eqqortuunnginne­ rarlugit eqqortuunerarlugilluun­ niit oqaatiginissaannut, atuartullu apeqqutaa akinissaanut qanoq atornissaat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Allanngoriartorneq (Evolutioni)

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartup uumassusillit uumaffigisaminni pissutsinut naleqqussartarnerat misissorsinnaavaa Atuartup uumassusillit naleqqussartarnerat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.
Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut fysik-kemiimi misissuinissanik aaqqissuisinnaassasut, ingerlatsisinnaassasut nalilersuisinnaassasullu.

Pinngortitalerinermi anguniakkat pingaarnerit

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartup misissuinerit ilusilersorsinnaavai paasissutissallu nammineq allallu misissuinerannit pisut katersorsinnaallugit, uppernarsarsinnaallugillu nalilersorsinnaavai. Atuartup pinngortitalerinermi misissuinerni periutsit, paasis- sutissanik katersisarneq, uppernarsaasiisarneq naliler- suisarnerlu kiisalu misissuinerup allanngorartortaasa pingaaru- taat ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup nammineq allallu suliaat misissuinerilu tunngavigalugit hypotesit eqqortuunnginnerarlugilluun- niit eqqortuunerarsinnaavai. Atuartup paasissutissat katersukkat hypotesit eqqor- tuunnginnerarlugit eqqor- tuunerarlugilluunniit oqaatigi­ nissaannut, atuartullu apeqqutaa akinissaanut qanoq atornissaat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Attaveqaqatigiittarnerup iluani pinngortitalerinerup teknologiillu iluanni pisartut oqaloqatigiissutigisinnaas­ sagaat kiisalu namminneq misissukkatik saqqummiussinnaassagaat.

Tunngavilersuineq

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup paasissutissat katersat tunngavigalugit misissuinerup inernera tunngavilersorsinnaavaa.Atuartup paasissutissat katersat tunngavilersuinerullu imminnut ataqatigiinnerat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Matematikkip atuuffii

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup nammineq allallu paasissutissat katersugaat diagramminut tulluartunut nuussinnaavai taakkualu pinngortitalerinermik imaat nassuiarsinnaallugit.Atuartup diagrammit tulluartut atornissaat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.
Atuartup naatsorsukkat, inerniliussat saqqummiussallu atuussinnaassusaat sanillius- sinnaavai, nalilersorsinnaavai tunngavilersorsinnaallugillu.Atuartup paasissutissat matematikki atorlugu saqqummiunneqartut misissoqqissaarnissaat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut pinngortitaleriffiusumik nunalerinermi misissuinissanik aaqqissuisinnaassasut, ingerlatsisinnaassasut nalilersuisinnaassasullu.

Pinngortitalerinermi anguniakkat pingaarnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup misissuinerit ilusilersorsinnaavai paasissutis- sallu nammineq allallu misissuinerannit pisut katersorsinnaallugit, uppernarsarsinnaallugillu nalilersorsinnaavai.Atuartup pinngortitalerinermi misissuinerni periutsit, paasissu- tissanik katersisarneq, upper- narsaasiisarneq nalilersuisarnerlu kiisalu misissuinerup allanngorar- tortaasa pingaarutaat ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup nammineq allallu suliaat misissuinerilu tunngaviga- lugit hypotesit eqqortuunnginnerarlugilluunniit eqqortuunerarsinnaavai.Atuartup paasissutissat katersuk- kat hypotesit eqqortuunnginnerar- lugit eqqortuunerarlugilluunniit oqaatiginissaannut, atuartullu apeqqutaa akinissaanut qanoq atornissaat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.
Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut matema­ tikkimi ulluinnarnilu eqqarsaatigisaria- linni nassuiaanerni misissueqqissaar­ nernilu kisitsisit kisitsisiviusut allanngorartullu atorsinnaassagaat.

Funktionit

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartup ataqatigiinnerit allanngornerillu nassuiarnissaannut funktionit titarneri narlusuujunngitsut atorsinnaavai. Atuartoq funktionit titarnerisa narlusuujunngitsut takussutissiorneqarnerat pillugu ilisimasaqarpoq.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut naatsor- sueqqissaarluni misissuinernik naliliisinnaassasut aamma naatsor- sueqqissaarnikkut teoretiskimillu ilimanassutsimik atuisinnaassasut.

Pinngortitalerinermi anguniakkat pingaarnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup paasissutissanik ataatsimoortunik misissueqqissaarnissamut kisitsisit paasissutissiissutit diagrammillu naleqquttut toqqarsinnaavai.Atuartoq naatsorsueqqissaarnermi kisitsisinik paasissutis- siissutaasut, diagrammit atortullu digitaliusut paasissutissanik ataatsimoortunik annertuunik passussinermut atorne- qarsinnaasut pillugit ilisimasaqarpoq.
Atuartoq paasissutissanit ataatsimoortunit avatangiisiminut atassusiilluni misissuisinnaavoq.Atuartoq paasissutissat ataatsimoortut ataqatigiinnerannik misissuinissamut periaatsit pillugit ilisimasaqarpoq, matumunnga ilanngullugu atortut digitaliusut ilisimallugit.

Wildlife

Animal and plant species that have not been domesticated. It also includes all the organisms that live in their environments without being introduced by humans.

Stress

Biological response to environmental pressures or threats that disrupt the balance in the body. It triggers adaptive behaviours and physiological changes aimed at survival. It is a survival mechanism that helps animals respond to and cope with environmental challenges, but chronic stress can be harmful.

Seafloor destruction

The physical and ecological damage or degradation of the ocean floor caused by natural events or human activities, leading to the loss of marine habitats, biodiversity, and ecosystem functions.

Seafloor damage caused by dredging for scallops © Howard Wood/COAST

Parasite

An organism that lives in or on a host organism of a different species, and uses that organisms’ resources at the detriment of the host organism. Tapeworms are one well-known kind of parasite.

Overfishing

Catching fish at a higher rate than the population or stock has a chance to recover. To simplify, there are not enough mature adults that can reproduce and keep the population healthy. Overfishing leads to decreases in population numbers and can even lead to crashes of entire fishing grounds.

Ocean warming

The process of rising sea water temperatures caused by the Earth’s atmosphere trapping more heat due to greenhouse gas emissions, with the oceans absorbing most of this excess heat. Ocean warming can have catastrophic consequences on all life, both in the water, but also on land.

Schematic visualisation of ocean warming © Copernicus Marine Service

Ocean acidification

The process of sea water becoming more acidic (lower pH value) caused by the excess of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolving in the water and forming acid. The levels of carbon dioxide are rising due to different human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes. Ocean acidification causes issues for all life in the ocean.

Schematic visualisation of ocean acidification © Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Nutrient

A substance found in food, such as proteins, sugars, fats, or vitamins, that provides the body with the necessary fuel and materials to grow, develop, and maintain health.

Nursing

The act of a female mammal feeding milk to a baby or juvenile. The female’s mammary glands produce milk that is rich in all the nutrients that the offspring needs for optimal growth and development. The milk content differs from species to species, depending on what the young need for development. Pinnipeds always nurse on land or ice, while cetaceans nurse underwater.

Harp seal pup nursing on its mother © Ann Harvey

Mitigation

The action undertaken to reduce or minimise the severity, seriousness or negative consequences of something. For example, different rules and regulations made to help fight the negative effects of climate change.

Mining

The process of digging a valuable material, minerals, from the Earth. Mining can be surface or underground. In surface mining, the minerals are extracted from near the Earth’s surface and this type can be very destructive to surrounding area. Underground mining consists of taking minerals from deep under the surface by digging or blasting tunnels. Deep sea or seabed mining refers to extracting minerals from the ocean floor.

Miners walking to an underground mining tunnel © Shahir Chundra

Guideline

A general rule, principle or a piece of information. Suggests or instructs on how an activity needs to be performed, or how people are expected to behave in a given situation.

Dredging

The mechanical process of removing sediment, debris, or other material from the bottom of bodies of water such as rivers, harbours, lakes, or seas. It is done to keep waterways deep enough for ships, support port construction, extract underwater resources like sand, prevent flooding by clearing blockages, and clean up polluted sediments. Dredging can harm marine ecosystems by destroying habitats on the sea floor, increasing water turbidity, and disturbing or displacing marine life. It may also release pollutants trapped in the sediment, affecting water quality and the health of nearby organisms.

Excavator dredger © Sillerkiil

Disturbance

An event or action that changes or interrupts the natural behaviour of plants, animals or the environment.  In this context we are talking about human activities that cause negative changes in the environment.

Cumulative impacts

The combined effects of multiple activities or environmental changes over time that, together, cause greater harm to a species or ecosystem than each would individually. They build up gradually, often leading to significant long-term damage that may not be apparent from any single action alone.

Biodiversity

All different plant and animal species that live in the same habitat. The level of biodiversity can be a good indicator of the state (health and stability) of the ecosystem.

Aquaculture

 Farming in the water, both fresh and sea, i.e., breeding, raising, and harvesting aquatic organisms, such as fish, shellfish, crabs, or algae for profit. 

Salmon farm © Erik Christensen

Algal bloom

Quick growth in the population of algae in freshwater or marine ecosystems, as a result of excessive nutrients in the environment.  It is usually characterised by changes in the colouration of the sea depending on which species of algae have caused the bloom (red, brown or green). These blooms have a harmful effect on the environment and other species that live in the area: the limit the amount of light that penetrates the water surface, use up all the oxygen in the water and suffocate other organisms, and even produce toxins as a by-product of their metabolism.

Large algal bloom in Lake Erie (USA) in 2017 that was seen from space © NASA/USGS satellite

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Issuagaqarluni assersuusiornerup iluani assersuusiat uumassusilerinermi atorsinnaallugillu nalilersorsin- naassagaat.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup piusuusaartitat atorlugit uumasut aallar­ tartut aallajuitsullu ukiup ingerlanerani uumasarne­ rat sanilliussinnaavaa.Atuartup uumasut aallartartut aallajuitsullu ukiup ingerlanerani uumasarnerat ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Issuagaqarluni assersuusiornerup iluani assersuusiat pinngortitaleriffiusumik nunalerinermi atorsinnaallugillu nalilersorsinnaassagaat.

Nunarsuaq

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup nunap assingi assigiin- ngitsut atorsinnaavai aammalu allorniusat tukimukartut sani- mukartullu atorlugit sumiiffinnik tikkuussisinnaalluni.Atuartup nunap assingi, nunap assinginik atuaaneq ilisarnaatillu nassuiaataasut ilisi- masaqarfigivai.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut uumassusilerinermi misissuinissanik aaqqissuisinnaassasut, ingerlatsisinnaassasut nalilersuisinnaassasullu.

Allanngoriartorneq (Evolutioni)

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartoq uumassusillit uumassusilinnut pissuse­ qatiminnut atasuuneran­ nik misissuisinnaavoq.Atuartup uumassusillit aaqqissugaasumik nalu­ naarsugaanerat uumassu­ silinnillu immikkoortiteri­ saatsit ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaartut (fødekæder) nerisareqatigiiaarnerillu (fødenet) misissorsinnaavai.Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaarnerat (fødekæder) nerisareqa­ tigiiaartuunerlu (fødenet) ilisimasaqarfigivai.

 

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Issuagaqarluni assersuusiornerup iluani assersuusiat uumassusilerinermi atorsinnaallugillu nalilersorsin- naassagaat.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaartut (fødekæder), nerisareqatigiiaar­ tut (fødenet) nukinnillu atuisar­ nerup pyramideatut takussutis­ siaralugit nammineq sanaaminik piusuusaartitaliarisinnaavai.Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaartut (fødekæder), nerisareqatigiiaar­ tut (fødenet) nukinnillu atuisarnerup pyramideata imminnut ataqatigiinnerat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Isumalluutit piujuaannartitsinerlu

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup piusuusaartitat ator­ lugit uumasut aalajangersima­ sut uumasoqatigiillutik uumaf­ fimminni amerlassutsimikkut imminnut sunniivigeqatigiit­ tarnerat nassuiarsinnaavaa.Atuartup uumasut aalajanger­ simasut uumasoqatigiillutik uumaffimminni amerlassutsi­ mikkut imminnut sunniivigeqatigiittarnerat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Paasisat aallaavigalugit sanilliussinerup iluani uumassusilerineq avatangiisinut sanillersuussinnaassa- gaat, atuartitissutillu imaa pinngortitamut ilisimatusarnermik ineriartortitsinermut sanillersuussinnaas- sagaat.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup pinngortitami ataqa­ tigiinnernut sunniutit pinngor­ titami namminermi pisartut inuullu pilersitai, silap pissu­ siata allanngoriartornera ilan­ ngullugu isumaliutigisinnaavai.Atuartup pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit allannguutaasa kinguneri, silap pissusiata allanngoriartornera ilanngul­ lugu ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup uumassusillit assi­ giinngiiaartut amerlangaarsu­ siisa pingaarutaat nassuiarsin­ naavaa uumassusillillu assigiin­ ngiiaartut amerlangaarsusiisa annertusitinnissaannut suliniuti­ nik siunnersuuteqarsinnaalluni.Atuartup uumassusillit assigiinngiiaartut amerlangaarsusaat taassumunngalu sunniu­ teqartartut ilisimasa­ qarfigivai.

Isumalluutit piujuaannartitsinerlu

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup inuup pinngorti­ tamut qanoq sunniuteqartar­ nera najugaqarfinnilu pinngortitamut suut suliniutaasinnaanersut isumaliutigisinnaavai.Atuartup najugaqarfinni pinngortitamut suliniutaasinnaasut ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut uumassusilerinermi misissuinissanik aaqqissuisinnaassasut, ingerlatsisinnaassasut nalilersuisinnaassasullu.

Allanngoriartorneq (Evolutioni)

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartoq uumassusillit uumassusilinnut pissuse­ qatiminnut atasuuneran­ nik misissuisinnaavoq.Atuartup uumassusillit aaqqissugaasumik nalu­ naarsugaanerat uumassu­ silinnillu immikkoortiteri­ saatsit ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaartut (fødekæder) nerisareqatigiiaarnerillu (fødenet) misissorsinnaavai.Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaarnerat (fødekæder) nerisareqa­ tigiiaartuunerlu (fødenet) ilisimasaqarfigivai.

 

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Issuagaqarluni assersuusiornerup iluani assersuusiat uumassusilerinermi atorsinnaallugillu nalilersorsin- naassagaat.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaartut (fødekæder), nerisareqatigiiaar­ tut (fødenet) nukinnillu atuisar­ nerup pyramideatut takussutis­ siaralugit nammineq sanaaminik piusuusaartitaliarisinnaavai.Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaartut (fødekæder), nerisareqatigiiaar­ tut (fødenet) nukinnillu atuisarnerup pyramideata imminnut ataqatigiinnerat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Isumalluutit piujuaannartitsinerlu

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup piusuusaartitat ator­ lugit uumasut aalajangersima­ sut uumasoqatigiillutik uumaf­ fimminni amerlassutsimikkut imminnut sunniivigeqatigiit­ tarnerat nassuiarsinnaavaa.Atuartup uumasut aalajanger­ simasut uumasoqatigiillutik uumaffimminni amerlassutsi­ mikkut imminnut sunniivigeqatigiittarnerat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Paasisat aallaavigalugit sanilliussinerup iluani uumassusilerineq avatangiisinut sanillersuussinnaassa- gaat, atuartitissutillu imaa pinngortitamut ilisimatusarnermik ineriartortitsinermut sanillersuussinnaas- sagaat.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup pinngortitami ataqa­ tigiinnernut sunniutit pinngor­ titami namminermi pisartut inuullu pilersitai, silap pissu­ siata allanngoriartornera ilan­ ngullugu isumaliutigisinnaavai.Atuartup pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit allannguutaasa kinguneri, silap pissusiata allanngoriartornera ilanngul­ lugu ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup uumassusillit assi­ giinngiiaartut amerlangaarsu­ siisa pingaarutaat nassuiarsin­ naavaa uumassusillillu assigiin­ ngiiaartut amerlangaarsusiisa annertusitinnissaannut suliniuti­ nik siunnersuuteqarsinnaalluni.Atuartup uumassusillit assigiinngiiaartut amerlangaarsusaat taassumunngalu sunniu­ teqartartut ilisimasa­ qarfigivai.

Isumalluutit piujuaannartitsinerlu

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup inuup pinngorti­ tamut qanoq sunniuteqartar­ nera najugaqarfinnilu pinngortitamut suut suliniutaasinnaanersut isumaliutigisinnaavai.Atuartup najugaqarfinni pinngortitamut suliniutaasinnaasut ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut uumassusilerinermi misissuinissanik aaqqissuisinnaassasut, ingerlatsisinnaassasut nalilersuisinnaassasullu.

Allanngoriartorneq (Evolutioni)

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartoq uumassusillit uumassusilinnut pissuse­ qatiminnut atasuuneran­ nik misissuisinnaavoq.Atuartup uumassusillit aaqqissugaasumik nalu­ naarsugaanerat uumassu­ silinnillu immikkoortiteri­ saatsit ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaartut (fødekæder) nerisareqatigiiaarnerillu (fødenet) misissorsinnaavai.Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaarnerat (fødekæder) nerisareqa­ tigiiaartuunerlu (fødenet) ilisimasaqarfigivai.

 

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Issuagaqarluni assersuusiornerup iluani assersuusiat uumassusilerinermi atorsinnaallugillu nalilersorsin- naassagaat.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaartut (fødekæder), nerisareqatigiiaar­ tut (fødenet) nukinnillu atuisar­ nerup pyramideatut takussutis­ siaralugit nammineq sanaaminik piusuusaartitaliarisinnaavai.Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaartut (fødekæder), nerisareqatigiiaar­ tut (fødenet) nukinnillu atuisarnerup pyramideata imminnut ataqatigiinnerat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Isumalluutit piujuaannartitsinerlu

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup piusuusaartitat ator­ lugit uumasut aalajangersima­ sut uumasoqatigiillutik uumaf­ fimminni amerlassutsimikkut imminnut sunniivigeqatigiit­ tarnerat nassuiarsinnaavaa.Atuartup uumasut aalajanger­ simasut uumasoqatigiillutik uumaffimminni amerlassutsi­ mikkut imminnut sunniivigeqatigiittarnerat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Paasisat aallaavigalugit sanilliussinerup iluani uumassusilerineq avatangiisinut sanillersuussinnaassa- gaat, atuartitissutillu imaa pinngortitamut ilisimatusarnermik ineriartortitsinermut sanillersuussinnaas- sagaat.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup pinngortitami ataqa­ tigiinnernut sunniutit pinngor­ titami namminermi pisartut inuullu pilersitai, silap pissu­ siata allanngoriartornera ilan­ ngullugu isumaliutigisinnaavai.Atuartup pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit allannguutaasa kinguneri, silap pissusiata allanngoriartornera ilanngul­ lugu ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup uumassusillit assi­ giinngiiaartut amerlangaarsu­ siisa pingaarutaat nassuiarsin­ naavaa uumassusillillu assigiin­ ngiiaartut amerlangaarsusiisa annertusitinnissaannut suliniuti­ nik siunnersuuteqarsinnaalluni.Atuartup uumassusillit assigiinngiiaartut amerlangaarsusaat taassumunngalu sunniu­ teqartartut ilisimasa­ qarfigivai.

Isumalluutit piujuaannartitsinerlu

PisinnaasassatIlisimasassat
Atuartup inuup pinngorti­ tamut qanoq sunniuteqartar­ nera najugaqarfinnilu pinngortitamut suut suliniutaasinnaanersut isumaliutigisinnaavai.Atuartup najugaqarfinni pinngortitamut suliniutaasinnaasut ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Whale oil

Oil derived from the blubber or melon of whales. Whale oil extracted from different species has different names and uses. Sperm oil is extracted from the blubber and spermaceti of sperm whales, train oil from baleen whales, and melon oil from small toothed whales.

Samples of whale oil © Martha’s Vineyard Museum

Vessel

A ship or a boat. Craft used for navigation on the water.

Statsraad Lehmkuhl, one of the world’s largest and oldest sailing ships in operational service © Bruno Girin

Selkie

Creatures from Celtic and Norse mythology. Shapeshifters that can change form between seals and humans by removing or putting on their seal skin.

Illustration of a Selkie woman changing into her seal form © Nataša Ilinčić

Overexploitation

Excessively harvesting a natural resource faster than it can replenish itself through natural processes. For instance, using too much freshwater for agriculture can deplete aquifers because the water cycle takes longer to refill them; hunting too many blue whales in the 20th century dramatically reduced their global population because their reproductive rate is slow.

Moratorium

A temporary delay or suspension of activity, law or payment. In our context, the moratorium reefers to the cessation of the hunt of large whales in 1985 onwards. That means that since then, the member countries of the IWC have stopped whaling, with the exception of Iceland and Norway.

Global North

Global North and Global South are the terms used to group countries based on their defining characteristics with regard to socioeconomics and politics. More specifically, the Global North consists of the world’s developed countries, whereas the Global South consists of the world’s developing countries and least developed countries. The terms do not refer to the Northern and Southern hemisphere, as some of the countries of the Global North are located in the geographical south, and vice versa.

Economic classification of the world’s countries and territories by the UNCTAD in 2023: the Global North is highlighted in blue, and the Global South is highlighted in red © United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)

Game piece

Pieces that are moved around in board games like chess or checkers. The game pieces were historically carved from different natural materials like wood and ivory, and in some countries that were whale hunting countries, they were made from marine mammal bones.

12th century chess pieces called the Lewis Chessmen, named after the island they were found at. The pieces are carved out of walrus ivory and whales’ teeth © National Museums Scotland

Beaked whales

Family of toothed whales counting 22 species. They are the least known of all whale species because they mostly stay in deep offshore areas, avoid boats, and are hard to identify. Almost everything we know about these animals, we learned from stranded individuals. They are named after their extended snout, and most species of this family only have one pair of tusk-like teeth that is only visible in males.

All known species of beaked whales © Jörg Mazur

Wilderness

Area or region that is not significantly disturbed by human activity (no extensive agriculture or urban development).

Clements Mountain, over a million acres of federally protected wilderness area in Montana, USA © Lawrence Stolt

Nasal septum

The cartilage wall that separates two nostrils from each other. In adult male hooded seals, part of the nasal septum is very elastic, so they can inflate it and it comes out through their nose like a balloon. 

Nasal septum © Spirox, Inc. 2017

Qajaq

Greenlandic spelling of kayak. Small, one-person vessel used by Indigenous people for hunting and transportation. In Greenland, it is traditionally made from seal skin stretched over a frame made of whalebone or driftwood.

Traditional Greenlandic qajaq © Ville Miettinen

Monitoring

Activity that ensures that something is happening in accordance with rules and regulations. In the context of hunting, monitoring is conducted to make sure that animals are hunted in compliance with welfare standards, safety standards for the hunters, and that government guidelines for hunted stocks are being followed.

Marine protected areas

A marine protected area (MPA) is a clearly defined region established to conserve marine biodiversity, ecosystem health, and cultural heritage. As part of a globally connected network, MPAs help safeguard marine resources while ensuring the continued supply of essential ecosystem services. Effects of MPAs can be seen not just in the areas themselves, but also surrounding areas, as marine life “spills” over the boarders of the MPA increasing biodiversity and biomass in the areas around it. Not all MPAs have the same level of protection: while some are fully protected and nothing can be taken from there, others allow for some level of resource extraction.

Figure showing the effect of different levels of protection in MPAs © Adapted from Ferreira et al. 2022

Anthropogenic

Of human origin. Changes in the environment or pollution caused by human activities such as farming, mining, fishing, are called anthropogenic changes. Anthropogenic underwater noise is sound caused by ships, building marine infrastructure, sonar, and other human activities.

Sea ice

Frozen sea water. It covers part of the Arctic and Antarctic regions throughout the year, and also forms seasonally in some regions. It can be classified as (land)fast ice if it is attached to land or pack ice if it is not.

Harp seals on sea ice © Garry Stenson / DFO Canada

Vertebrae

Irregularly shaped bones that form the vertebral column or spine. Vertebrate animals were named for having a spine, compared to invertebrates, which don’t have it. The role of the spine is to protect spinal cord, as well stabilise pelvic bones and upper body, and allow movement.

Vertebrae that form the lower spine in humans © Anatomy.app

Bottom feeder

Animals that feed on other organisms that live on or near the bottom of a body of water.

Circumpolar

Distribution type where species occur over a wide range of longitudes, but only in high latitudes. That means that species can be found all around either the North or the South Pole. An example of species with circumpolar distribution is a polar bear.

Circumpolar distribution of polar bears © Wikipedia

Lipid-rich

Fish species that have high content of omega-3 fatty acids and other beneficial fats. Some of those species are mackerel, herring, salmon, and capelin.

Sexual dimorphism

Phenomenon in which males and females of the same species have a significant difference in appearance. These differences can be in the overall size, shape, colour, or even the presence of different organs (like the nasal sacs of hooded seals).

Sexual dimorphism in killer whales. Longer dorsal fin of male compared to female © Fernando Ugarte

Ulo knife

Also known as ulu, or a women’s knife. Traditional all-purpose knife used by Indigenous women of the Arctic. It is used for all kinds of purposes, from skinning and cleaning animals, to cutting hair or food, and even trimming ice blocks.

Traditional West Greenlandic ulo knife © Lisa Risager

Polynya

Large, open-water areas within pack ice. They can be coastal or open-ocean.

Polynya © Jeff Schmaltz / NASA

Melon

A round, fatty organ located in the forehead of the toothed whales and used in echolocation and communication. Its function is to focus and adjust animals’ vocalisation. It also acts as a sound lens.

Melon of bottlenose dolphin © McKenna et al. 2007

Leads

Leads in sea ice are linear fractures in sea ice that occur at any time of the year. They can extend for hundreds of kilometres and can be from a few to several hundreds of metres in width.

A lead in sea ice © Joe MacGregor / NASA

Entrapment

Even when a pod of whales gets surrounded by ice due to rapidly forming sea ice. Whales are unable to leave the entrapment, and this can lead to death of some or all pod members.

Beluga entrapment © Kristin Laidre

Poultry

Domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of harvesting animal products such as meat, eggs, and feathers.

Caption © Credit

Pack ice

Any area of sea ice that is not attached to the land and is made up of smaller parts that have frozen together. Because it is not attached, pack ice can move. It expands during the winter and recedes during the summer.

Pack ice in the waters off Antarctica © Armin Rose/Shutterstock.com / Encyclopædia Britannica

Omnivores

All animals that eat both plants or phytoplankton and other animals.

Adaptive management

Adaptive management is a structured, step-by-step approach to improving resource management by learning from the outcomes of past decisions. It involves making decisions in the face of uncertainty, closely monitoring the results, and adjusting strategies over time. The goal is to reduce uncertainty and improve decision-making by continuously refining practices based on what is learned. It emphasises accountability and clarity in each decision-making step, allowing for flexibility and better long-term management of resources.

Adaptive Management Cycle © Adapted from Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Marine and Atmospheric Research

Ecosystem-based management

According to NOAA, ecosystem-based management is an integrated approach that incorporates the entire ecosystem, including humans, into resource management decisions, and is guided by an adaptive management approach.

Ecosystem based management © NOAA

Herbivores

All animals that feed on plants or phytoplankton.

Manatee grazing on seagrass © Carol Grant / Oceangrant Images

Photosynthesis

Process in which primary producers—plants and phytoplankton—use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce energy in the form of sugar glucose and oxygen.

Lanugo

Soft, white, fine hair that covers the body of a seal pup inside of the uterus. Most pups have their first moult, shedding lanugo while still in-utero, but some, like ringed or harps seals are born white and covered with lanugo and shed it only after they are born.

Harp seal pup covered with lanugo © Michale Poltermann / IMR

Whiskers

Specialised, stiff, functional hairs on the face of mammals used to sense their surrounding environment.

Long whiskers of bearded seal © Kerryn London / Flickr

Spade-shaped tooth

Broader and flatter teeth that harbour porpoise have. This shape resembles shovel and is good for grasping and holding onto slippery prey, like fish.

Spade-shaped tooth of a harbour porpoise © Monterey Bay Aquarium

Cone-shaped tooth

This type of teeth are pointed, sharp and in a shape of a cone. Dolphins have teeth like this. This shape helps them grip and tear into their prey more effectively, as they often hunt larger or more agile fish.

Cone-shaped dolphin teeth © Monterey Bay Aquarium

Spyhopping

A type of surfacing behaviour where a whale is upright with its head coming out of water and then sinking gently back to water without splashing. It is used by animals to survey the environment around them.

Killer whale spyhopping © Norwegian Orca Survey

Secondary sexual characteristics

Physical characteristics that indicate the sex of the organism but are not directly related to reproductive system. They are developed later in life when organism reaches sexual maturity. Secondary sexual characteristics usually have a role in securing a mate and reproduction. Some examples are antlers in stags, peacocks’ long tail, tusk in narwhals, or hood of the hooded seals.

Different examples of secondary sexual characteristics

Lobtailing

A form of social behaviour of cetaceans where an animal lifts its tail fluke above the water and brings it down with force. The result is a big splash. They display this behaviour in order to call attention to other individuals.

Killer whale lobtailing © Norwegian Orca Survey

Ecotype

A geographical variation. Population that belongs to a species but is genetically distinct from the rest of the population. Ecotypes are adapted to a specific environmental condition and often look different from rest of the population.

Difference between an ecotype Kangia ringed seal and typical ringed seal

Descendant

A plant or an animal that is related to a particular plant or animal that lived before them.

Cosmopolite

A species that can be found almost anywhere on the Earth.

Example of a distribution map of a cosmopolitan species (Orcinus orca) ©

IUCN

Canine

Single-pointed tooth adapted for tearing or piercing food. They are positioned next to, or behind the front teeth.

Harbour seal skull showing its canines © Puget Sound Museum of Natural History

Breaching

Behaviour where a whale launches most or all of its body out of the water.

Breaching humpback whale © Fernando Ugarte

Bow-riding

Behaviour where toothed whales swim at the front of a moving boat, or even a large whale, riding the pressure waves created by its bow. By positioning themselves correctly, they can be propelled forward with little effort, often leaping and surfing along the boat’s wake.

Two bottlenose dolphins bow-riding © Bernd Würsig

Gillnet

Type of fishing gear. A wall of nett that hangs in the water column. It is made so that fishes head can pass through the mesh size but not their body, so their gills get stuck in the net.

Gillnet © NOAA Fisheries

Longline (fishing)

A fishing method that uses long main line with baited hooks evenly spaced and attached to the main line by short branch lines.

Longline fishing © NOAA Fisheries

Soundscape

Acoustic environment. All the sounds produced by organisms and environmental elements in a particular habitat or ecosystem. It includes all the sounds organisms make, but also the sounds that come from wind, water, and moving of the earth.

Dálking

The addition of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or any form of energy (such as heat, sound, or radioactivity) to the environment at a rate faster than it can be dispersed, diluted, decomposed, recycled, or stored in some harmless form (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Fitness

The ability of organism to survive and reproduce in the environment they are in.

Decompression sickness

Also known as divers’ disease or bends. It happens when a person or animal ascend to surface too quickly. Because of the sudden changes in pressure, the dissolved nitrogen in the blood gets released in the form of bubbles in the bloodstream and tissues and can cause different symptoms, such as fatigue, dizziness, neurological disturbances, pains…

Decompression sickness diagram © Coral Grand Divers

Precipitation

Any form of water, liquid or frozen, that forms in the atmosphere and falls back to the earth.

Different types of precipitation © Eschooltoday

Food insecurity

According to FAO, a person is food insecure when they lack regular access to enough safe and nutritious food for normal growth and development and an active and healthy life. This may be due to unavailability of food and/or lack of resources to obtain food.

Fløkja

Process in which animal becomes trapped in human-made objects, including marine debris, abandoned (ghost) fishing gear, and active fishing equipment.

Juvenile Antarctic fur seal entangled in fishing net © Nico de Bruyn

Taxonomy

Branch of science that deals with identification, classification, and naming extant (currently living) and extinct (no longer living, fossils) organisms based on shared characteristics. The current way of naming species was developed by Carl Linnaeus and it is called binominal (binary) nomenclature. According to it, each name species consists of two names, the first is the name of the genus to which species belongs to and the second name distinguishes the species withing the genus.

Taxonomy of a humpback whale © Modified from Dawn Witherington / NOAA

Environment

Everything that surrounds someone or something, natural world, or human made. The conditions that surround a person, animal, or a plant and that influence their growth, health, and all natural processes (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Components of environment © GeeksforGeeks

The UN – United Nation

The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945 with the intended purpose of maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, achieving international cooperation, and serving as a centre for coordinating the actions of member nations. Currently made up of 193 Member States.

The UN logo

Stock

A unit of a species or population; should be designated and managed in such a way that the population and/or species as a whole persists throughout its range; often comprises a breeding population that occupies the same regions annually (NAMMCO).

Species

The basic unit of taxonomy. Consists of individuals who share common morphological and physical characteristics and can interbreed and give fertile offspring.

School of fish

A name for a group of fish swimming together.

School of herring © iStock

Satellite tagging

Research method used to track the movements and behaviours of animals, particularly those in marine or remote environments. This technique involves attaching a tag equipped with a satellite transmitter to the animal. As the animal moves, the tag sends data via satellite, which researchers can then analyse to gain insights into migration patterns, habitat use, and environmental interactions.

Satellite tag on a Kangia ringed seal © Aqqalu Rosing-Asvid

Pollutant

Harmful material in the environment. A substance that makes the land, water, air and other media dirty, and not safe and suitable for use.

Water pollution © Encyclopædia Britannica

Pod

Social groups of marine mammals that share strong bonds. These groups have established hierarchy, and usually consist of family members.

Pod of killer whales © Fernando Ugarte

NASS-North Atlantic Sighting Surveys

NASS are internationally coordinated cetacean surveys conducted in 1987, 1989, 1995, 2001, 2007, 2015, and 2024. These surveys are among the most extensive wildlife assessments, with primary objective to obtain quantitative data on the distribution and abundance of all cetacean species across the survey area, spanning the northern North Atlantic from Norway to North America.

Planned and completed tracks for NASS 2024 Survey © NAMMCO

MINTAG Project

MINTAG Project is funded by NAMMCO and Fisheries Agency Japan. The main goal of the project is to develop a new satellite tracking tool that can generate data crucial to improving the management and conservation of lesser-known whale species, such as fin, minge, sei, and Bryde’s whales.

Tagging of minke whale with a MINTAG Tag in Greenland 2023 © Fernando Ugarte

Lunge feeding

Feeding method of baleen whales where a whale rushes towards their prey with their mouth open and catches the prey in one go.

Humpback whale using lunge feeding © Iain Brownlee / Alamy Stock Photo

Interdisciplinary

Relating to more than one branch of science, e.g. biology, physic, math, sociology…

Indigenous knowledge

A body of observations, oral and written knowledge, innovations, practices, and beliefs developed by Tribes and Indigenous Peoples through interaction and experience with the environment. It is applied to phenomena across biological, physical, social, cultural, and spiritual systems. Indigenous Knowledge can be developed over millennia, continues to develop, and includes understanding based on evidence acquired through direct contact with the environment and long-term experiences, as well as extensive observations, lessons, and skills passed from generation to generation (Guidance for United States Federal Departments and Agencies on Indigenous Knowledge).

Human activity

The role that humans play in the environment and ecosystems they are a part of. It includes all the intentional and unintentional effects on the environment. In the marine environment, those are activities such as hunting, fishing, bycatch, noise and chemical pollution, habitat destruction, introduction of invasive species, changes in chemical composition of sea, and so on.

Coexistence

Living or existing at the same time in the same place. Ability of different species to live together in the same ecosystem without one driving the other to extinction. It addresses how species interact, compete for resources, and establish stable populations within a shared habitat.

Habitat

Place where an organism or a community of organisms lives, including all living and non-living factors or conditions of the surrounding environment (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Arctic Council

The Arctic Council is as an intergovernmental platform dedicated to tackling the challenges faced by both Arctic governments and the Indigenous communities inhabiting the region. The Arctic Council is formed by eight member states, each with sovereignty over territories within the Arctic Circle: Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States.

Bubble net feeding

A learned, cooperative feeding strategy that involves a group of whales. Humpback whales and Bryde’s whales use this strategy. A whales circle a school of small fish or swarms of krill they are hunting and start blowing bubbles. The fish are unable to escape this “net” of bubbles and stay trapped. Then whales swim with their mouths open through the trapped fish, and effectively feed themselves.

1. Bubble net feeding mechanism © Sharma & Sharma, 2023; 2. Humpback whales deploying bubble net feeding strategy © K. Kosma/Royal Society Open Science 2019

Western science

Often referred to as a modern science. Systematic approach to understanding the natural world that is rooted using the scientific method. This involves formulating hypotheses, conducting experiments, observing outcomes, and drawing conclusions based on data.

Welfare

Care about well-being of animals. In context of hunt, welfare is making sure the least amount of suffering and highest possible instant death rates in the hunt.

Tusk

A long tooth that animals such elephants, walruses, and narwhals have.

1. Atlantic walrus tusks © Christian Lydersen. 2. Narwhal tusks © Glenn Williams NIST

True seal

Also known as “earless” seals, true seals belong to a group of pinnipeds that have ear holes, but lack an external ear flap. While sea lions belong to the group of pinnipeds, they are not true seals because they have ear flaps. Grey seals instead, are true seals.

True, or “earless” seal (harbour seal) © Michael Poltermann

Trophic level

Step in a food chain or an ecosystem. The organisms of a chain are classified into these levels on the basis of their feeding behaviour (Encyclopædia Britannica).

The trophic levels pyramid © The University of Waikato Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato

Trawl

A large net with the form of a cone that is dragged along the sea bottom to gather fish or other marine life.

Twin bottom trawl © The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

Traditional Ecological Knowledge

Knowledge, practices, and beliefs about relationships between living beings in a specific ecosystem that is acquired by indigenous people over hundreds or thousands of years through direct contact with the environment, handed down through generations, and used for life-sustaining ways. This knowledge includes the relationships between people, plants, animals, natural phenomena, landscapes, and timing of events for activities such as hunting, fishing, trapping, agriculture, and forestry. It encompasses the world view of a people, which includes ecology, spirituality, human and animal relationships, and more (Synopsis of Traditional Ecological Knowledge, National Park Service).

Toxin

A poisonous substance that is a product of metabolic activities of another living organism.

Top predator

Also known as apex predator. Any carnivorous animal that is at the top of the food chain and has no natural predators. One of the most well-known top predators of the marine environment are killer whales.

Tail fluke

Triangular ending of a whales’ tail. Unique to every whale, similar to fingerprints in humans. Tail flukes are often used for identifying individuals.

Identifying traits on a humpback whale tail © Rhys Watkin

Sustenance

Food and drink that are a source of life, something that keeps someone or something alive.

Sustainable use

The use of a resource in a way that it does not lead to the long-term degradation of the environment, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations (Glossary of terms to negotiators or MEAs, 2007). NAMMCO is committed to the sustainable and responsible use of marine resources by developing effective conservation and management measures for marine mammals, while acknowledging the rights and needs of coastal communities. The sustainable use of marine mammals by coastal communities contributes to a lower environmental footprint, improved livelihoods, and economic growth, and support seven of the SDGs.

Sustainable food systems

A food system that delivers food security and nutrition for all.

Factors of Sustainable food systems © Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO)

Sustainability

The long-term viability of a community, set of social institutions, or societal practice. In general, sustainability is understood as a form of intergenerational ethics in which the environmental and economic actions taken by present persons do not diminish the opportunities of future persons to enjoy similar levels of wealth, utility, or welfare (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Survival rate

The percentage of individual who survive from one age group to the next, or percentage of survivors after a disease or mass mortality event.

Survey

Generally, survey is a systematic method of collecting information or data. There are different types of surveys, one of them being abundance surveys. This term refers specifically to the assessment of the quantity and distribution of a particular species or resource within a specified area. These surveys aim to estimate population sizes, density, and trends over time. Abundance surveys are important as they as they help researchers understand ecosystem health, make informed management decisions, and monitor changes in biodiversity. Methods may include direct counts, sampling, and remote sensing techniques. One example of abundance survey is the NASS-North Atlantic Sighting Surveys.

Surface skim feeding

Feeding method of baleen whales where whale slowly swims near the surface with its mouth open, filtering the prey as it moves forward.

Sei whale surface skim feeding © 7SeasWhaleWatch

Superpod

An aggregation of whales consisting of many smaller pods that gather for feeding, mating, or socialising. These superpods can count hundreds of whales. Sperm and killer whales are known to form these superpods.

Superpod of sperm whales © Tony Wu

Stranding

A phenomenon that occurs when marine mammals are found dead in the beach or the water or injured but alive close to shore and cannot return to the water, individually or in groups.

Stranded North Atlantic right whale © Tucker Joenz/Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission

Stakeholders

Any individual, social group, or actor who possesses an interest, a legal obligation, a moral right, or other concern in the decisions or outcomes of an organisation. Stakeholders either affect or are affected by the achievement of an organisation’s objectives (Encyclopædia Britannica). In the case of NAMMCO, stakeholders include all individuals who have an interested in the management and conservation of marine mammals, such as, managers, scientists, hunters, and tourists.

Squid beak

Mouth of a squid and beginning of a digestive system. Hard, indigestible material that is left in stomachs of whales that prey on squids. Beaks remaining in stomachs of sperm whales is one of the proofs of existence of colossal squid.

Squid beak © Mark Conlin/Alamy Stock Photo

Spermaceti

A liquid substance at body temperature, and waxy solid on lower temperatures, found in the heads of sperm and bottlenose whales. Humans used this substance in cosmetics, wax candles, ointments, textile finishing, and as industrial lubricant (Encyclopædia Britannica).

A sample of spermaceti wax, a spermaceti candle, and a jar of sperm oil © Genevieve Anderson

Spectogram

A visual representation of a sound. It shows frequencies that make a sound and how they change over time. When used in audio context, it is also called sonograph, voiceprint, or voicegram.

Weddell seal spectrogram © Screenshot from Sound in the Sea

Seine (fishing) net

A large net deployed in a way that encircles an entire area, creating a wall of netting.

Seine fishing net © NOAA Fisheries

Resource

Any biological, mineral, or aesthetic asset afforded by nature without human intervention that can be used for some form of benefit, whether material (economic) or immaterial (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Regulation

A rule or an instruction that authority issues and controls its implementation. These regulations help guide behaviour, manage risks, and uphold societal values through enforceable standards.

Pup

A young, baby, seal.

A harp seal mother and a pup © Michael Poltermann

Policymaking

The process of formulating and implementing policies to address societal issues by establishing boundaries, determining relevant themes, and legitimising participants in the decision-making process. Policymaking creates the rules, while decision–making implements actions based on those rules.

Pectoral fin

Also known as flipper. A fin located in the side of a marine mammal.

Pectoral fin of a bottlenose dolphin © Fernando Ugarte

Nutritional value

The measure of a well-balanced ratio of essential nutrients including carbohydrates, fat, protein, minerals, and vitamins in items of food.

NGO

Non-governmental organisation (NGO). According to the United Nations, an NGO is an non-profit organisation, group, or institution that operates independently from a Government, and has humanitarian or development objectives.

Nanoplastics

Plastic fragments smaller than 1 micrometre in size. It is formed as a result of the of microplastics breaking down from exposure to time and weather elements.

Moulting

The natural process in which an animal loses its feathers, skin, or hair at a particular time of year so that new feathers, skin, or hair can grow.

Láturkópanósi í hamskifti © Sandra Granquist

Mortality rate

The number of deaths in a given population over a period of time of a defined cause. For example, number of dead individuals per 100,000 population from a disease.

Microplastics

Plastic fragments smaller than 5 mm in length (according to NOAA and European Chemicals Agency) that are present as a consequence of the plastic pollution. There are two types: primary and secondary. Primary microplastics are microbeads, plastic pellets, and plastic fibres used in personal care products, as a raw material, or in clothing. Secondary microplastics is a product of larger plastic breakdown from exposure to elements and time.

Different sources and types of microplastics © Encounter Edu

Methane (CH₄)

A chemical compound formed by one carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms. It is the main compound of natural gas and one of the most potent greenhouse gases.

Methane molecule © Ben Mills

Mattak

A traditional food in Inuit, Chukchi and Nenets cuisine consisting of sliced whale skin with blubber.

Mattak © Lisa Risager

Matriarchal

Societal structure in which positions of power are held by female individuals. Some animal societies, like killer whale pods are an example of matriarchal societies. In their pods, the oldest female—grandmother—has a leading role.

Mating

The process of pairing animals from the same species for the purpose of sexual reproduction.

Marine debris

Any human-made object that ends up in the marine environment such as straws, soda bottles, plastic grocery bags, etc.

Beach covered with human made trash © NOAA Fisheries

Livelihood

Means of securing the basic necessities of life, such as food, shelter, and clothing. In simple terms, it is all ways people earn a living, including employment, self-employment, agriculture, fishing, and other income-generating activities.

Lair

A cave-like place where a wild animal lives. Ringed seals use snow lairs as shelters from the extreme cold temperatures and harsh weather conditions, as well as for giving birth and nursing their pups.

Diagram and photograph of ringed seal snow lair

IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature

Established in 1948, IUCN is the world’s largest environmental network, composed by over 1,400 member organisations, including governments and civil society. Its mission is to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable.

IUCN logo

Intestine

Bowel. Muscular tube extending from the stomach to the anus. The primary purpose is food digestion, and either absorption of the nutrients or expelling of the residue.

Indigenous whaling

Whaling conducted by native communities for subsistence, cultural practises, and traditional purposes. This type of hunt is generally well regulated to ensure sustainability and respect for cultural heritage.

Traditional way of narwhal hunting in Greenland © Kristin Laidre

Hertz (Hz)

The unity of frequency in the International System of Units (SI). It measures the number of cycles per second of a periodic phenomenon, e.g. one hertz corresponds to one cycle occurring in one second.

Haul out

A behaviour that pinnipeds have when they temporarily leave the water for reproducing or resting, among other things.

Hauled out walruses © Fernando Ugarte

Harpoon

A barbed spear used to kill whales, tuna, swordfish, and other large sea creatures, formerly thrown by hand but now, in the case of whales, shot from specially constructed guns (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Whaling harpoon © Encyclopædia Britannica

Grindadráp

A traditional method of drive hunting practiced in the Faroe Islands involves herding various species of whales and dolphins, predominantly pilot whales, into shallow bays where they are then beached and hunted.

Greenhouse gases

Gases present in Earth’s atmosphere that trap heat by allowing sunlight to pass through but preventing the heat from escaping back into space. The primary greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons.

The effect that greenhouse gases have on heating of the Earth’s surface © Wikipedia

Ghost (fishing) line

Fishing equipment that has been lost, abandoned, or discarded in the ocean. This gear continues to float or drift in the water, often being carried by currents and winds, without being actively controlled or used, and posing serious threats to marine life and their habitats.

A fish caught in discarded fishing net © Flavio Vitiello

Frequency

The number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time.

Food web

A complex network of interconnecting and overlapping food chains showing feeding relationships within a community (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Food security

The condition in which all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and preferences for an active and healthy life (World Food Summit, 1996).

Feeback loop

In climate change, a feedback loop is a mechanism that either accelerates or decelerates a temperature trend. A positive feedback loop increases the rate of temperature rise, while a negative feedback loop decreases it.

Echolocation

A biological sonar used by toothed whales to determine the location of objects using sound. The echolocation is used for orientation in the space, for hunting, and in social interactions. Toothed whales have a special organ in the front of their head—melon—made of fatty tissue that acts as a sound lens.

Echolocation mechanism © Zainuddin Lubis (2016)

Decision-making

The process of selecting a course of action from available alternatives based on the analysis of information, estimation of probabilities, and assigning values to anticipated outcomes. A decision usually concerns a specific situation. For example, managers deciding on the number of animals that can be hunted based on the available scientific data.

Cuttlebone

Also known as cuttlefish bone. Thick, internal, calcified shell that helps cuttlefish regulate buoyancy.

Cuttlebone © Mariko GODA

Citizen science

Research conducted with members from the general public and/or nonprofessional researchers that has the potential to involve people who are not usually involved in science, and thus bring closer the science, decision making, and society as a whole for the benefit of all.

Carbon tunnel vision

A concept that refers to the narrow focus on decreasing carbon dioxide emissions when addressing climate change, overlooking the broader spectrum of sustainable measures needed to tackle climate change.

Carbon tunnel vision diagram © New Perspective

Carbon footprint

The amount of carbon dioxide and other carbon-based greenhouse gas, such as methane, emissions associated with all the activities of a person or other entity (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Carbon dioxide (CO₂)

A chemical compound formed by carbon and oxygen, which is one of the most important greenhouse gases.

Carbon dioxide molecule © Jynto / Discovery Studio Visualizer

Calf

A young, baby, whale, dolphin or harbour porpoise.

A humpback whale mother-calf pair © Fredrik Christiansen

CAFF – Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna

CAFF is the Biodiversity Working Group of the Arctic Council. The main goal of the Working Group is the conservation of the Arctic’s biodiversity and the sustainable management of its living resources. CAFF works to address the challenges facing Arctic ecosystems, including climate change, habitat loss, and the impacts of human activities.

CAFF logo

Buoyancy

The ability of body to float or to rise to the surface when submerged in the water.

Biomagnification

Increase in concentration of chemical substance with increasing trophic level of organism in the food web (Drouillard 2008).

Biomagnification mechanism © WWF

Bioaccumulation

The gradual build-up of a chemical substance over time in a living organism, either because it is taken up faster than it can be used or because the chemical cannot be used by the organism. Bioaccumulation can be dangerous if the accumulated chemical is toxic.

Biomagnification mechanism © WWF

Barnacle

A marine crustacean, that lives very often encrusted attached to a hard substrate such as a rock, shell, ship or whale.

Barnacles on the whale © Fernando Ugarte

Atom

The basic particle of chemical elements. Consists of nucleus with protons and neutrons and surrounded by electron swarm.

The structure of atom © Modified from VilVite

Ambergris

Also known as grey amber. Solid, waxy substance produced in the sperm whale intestines. Fresh ambergris is black, soft, and has unpleasant smell, while exposing to sun causes it to harden, become light grey or yellow, and get pleasant smell it is recognised for. In sperm whales, it is assumed to protect intestines from irritation caused by undigestible objects like squid beak or cuttlebone. In Eastern cultures it is used in medicine, potions, and as a spice, while in the Western cultures it has use as a perfume stabiliser (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Different stages of ambergris © Frans Beuse / Ambergris NZ Ltd

Arctic amplification

A phenomenon whereby any change (negative or positive) in the energy received by the Earth tends to result in a larger temperature change in the Arctic. This phenomenon has caused the Arctic to warm up to three to four times faster due to climate change (Rantanen et al., 2022).

Albedo

The fraction of light that gets reflected by a surface. Bright materials have a higher albedo (i.e., capacity to reflect light) than darker materials. In this context, snow or ice have a higher albedo than trees.

Albedo © Norwegian Polar Institute

Fluke print

Smooth circles on the surface of water left by the movement of the tail fluke underwater. These fluke prints are useful in hunting, to follow the whale under the surface of the water as well as to determine the size of the whale.

Whale fluke prints © Pete Oxford/Minden Pictures

Baleen

Keratin-based structure, like hair, fingernails, and hooves, forming parallel plates that hang from the upper jaw in a comb-like structure. This structure plays the most important role in feeding process.

Baleens © NOAA Fisheries

Predator

An animal that preys, this is hunts, kills, and eats, other animals.

Prey

An animal that is hunted or killed by another animal, a predator, for food.

Adaptation

“The natural process by which a living species becomes the best fitted for its environment. Adaptations are a result of natural selection’s acting upon heritable variation over several generations” (Gittleman, 2022). Organisms adapt in many different ways, their body structure, their physiology, the way they move through their environment, and even on a genetic and molecular level. For instance, the blowhole at the top of a dolphin’s head is an adaptation that allows it to keep swimming without slowing down to breathe by sticking its entire face out of the water.

Fin

A thin flat part that sticks out from the body of a cetacean and is used in moving or guiding the animal through water (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Different fins of common dolphin © NOAA Fisheries

Countershading

A form of camouflage utilised by animals, where their coloration is darker on the upper side of the body and lighter on the underside. This adaptation helps them blend into their environment by reducing the contrast between their body and the surrounding light conditions, making it more challenging for predators or prey to spot them.

Countershading of a minke whale © MRI

Feeding aggregation

A gathering or concentration of individuals of a species in a particular area for the purpose of feeding.

Group of humpback whales feeding © Jan Straley / NOAA Fisheriesr

Eye lens

A spherical part of the eye that bends and focuses light. Its primary function is to regulate the amount of light entering the eye and enable marine mammals to see clearly underwater.

Dorsal fin

The fin located in the back of marine mammals.

Dorsal fin of a killer whale © Fernando Ugarte

Industrial whaling

Large-scale operations using advanced technology and vessels to maximise catches. Industrial whaling of the past has had significant negative impact on species hunted and environment.

Ventral pleats

Accordion-like folds of skin that on the underside of the whale, from their jaw, all the way down to its stomach. These folds have the role of allowing the whale to engulf massive amount of water at once, and effectively entrapping large amounts of their food (krill and small fish).

Lunge feeding mechanism of rorquals © Croll et al. 2018

Subspecies

A group within the same species that is genetically distinguishable from others of the same species.

Ecosystem

A complex system formed by of all living organisms with their interactions, and their physical environment in a particular area. All components of an ecosystem are connected through the nutrient and energy flow.

Toothed whale

Odontoceti. Group of cetaceans that include all whales with teeth, as well as dolphins and porpoises. Apart from teeth, they differ from baleen whales for their ability to echolocate. There are 73 species of toothed whales recognised, of which 14 reside in NAMMCO management area.

Different species of toothed whales (beluga whale, finless porpoise, Cuvier’s beaked whale, Amazon river dolphin)

Feeding ground

Areas of the sea/ocean where marine mammals gather to find and hunt food.

Breeding ground

Areas of the sea/ocean where male and female marine mammals gather for mating, and where females give birth and nurse their calves. Each species has different breeding season depending on their life cycle.

Crossbreeding

The process of breeding an organism with purebred parents of two different breeds, varieties, species, or populations.

Hybrid

An offspring resulting from the crossbreeding of two different species.

A reconstruction of the narluga, hybrid between narwhal and beluga © Markus Bühler

Krill

Shrimp-like crustaceans that live in the open sea.

Krill © Øystein Paulsen

Spout

A powerful burst of air, expelled from a whales blowhole, which creates a spray-like blow around the whale’s head. A whale’s spout can be used to recognise a whale species from afar. This is because each species, with their characteristic size and blowhole type, will have a different spout.

Spouts of different whales © GREMM

Population

A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular area at the same time that share a common genetic pool, allowing them to interbreed (Waples and Gaggiotti, 2006).

Vocalisation

The sounds that cetaceans make to communicate. There are several different sounds used during the vocalisations, such as clicks, whistles, and pulses. Clicks and pulses are generally used in echolocation, while whistles are thought to be used for communication within a group.

Insulation

A cover that prevents heat, sound, or electricity from escaping or entering.

Food chain

The sequence of transfers of matter and energy in the form of food from one organism to another.

Pinniped

Any of a group of 34 species of aquatic fin-footed mammals comprising seals, sea lions, and the walrus (Encyclopædia Britannica). Seven pinniped species are permanent residents in the NAMMCO management area.

Different species of pinnipeds (Atlantic walrus, Hooded seal, Harbour seal, Elephant seal)

Management area

The management area is the area at which the management is done for a given species. A species can have a wide distributional range and be impacted very differently by humans through this range. Hence its conservation status may vary between the areas. Management is therefore done not at the species level, but at the area level, which is relevant for that particular species.

Cetacean

Any member of an entirely aquatic group of mammals commonly known as whales, dolphins, and porpoises (Encyclopædia Britannica). Six species of baleen whales and 10 species of toothed whales are common permanent residents in the NAMMCO management area.

Baleen whale

Any cetacean possessing unique modifications of the mouth called baleen, which is used to filter food from water (Encyclopædia Britannica). There are 6 species of baleen whales in NAMMCO management area.

Different species of baleen whales (Fin whale, Humpback whale, Minke whale, Bowhead whale)

Rorqual

Largest group of baleen whales characterised by the accordion-like folds of skin on their belly side (ventral pleats) that stretch when animal feeds by intaking large amount of water at once.

Minke whale body anatomy © Encyclopædia Britannica

Conservation

The attempt to make humans’ relationship with the environment sustainable while still extracting natural resources.

Abundance estimate

The quantification of the total number of cetaceans or pinnipeds within a certain population or geographic area. Repeating abundance estimate surveys over time in a specific area is an important tool to understand if the number of animals is growing or declining over time. This allows scientists and policymakers to make informed decisions about conservation strategies and management practices.

Management

The process of dealing with something in an effective manner.

Migration

The behaviour in which animals travel from one habitat to another habitat to cover different needs, such as finding better environmental conditions, search food or reproducing.

Humpback whales migrating in the Pacific Ocean © Darren Jew