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Matur

Niðurkort
Whale meat in a Norwegian supermarket © Paul Thompson

In the northern coastal regions, marine mammals have been an important food source for millennia, because of their year-round abundance and accessibility compared to seasonally restricted land resources and many fish. The consumption of marine mammals still represents a significant aspect of food security and cultural well-being in many coastal regions. While there are health benefits to eating marine mammal meat (rich in vitamins, minerals, unsaturated fatty acids, antioxidants), there are also health risks because of the level of some pollutants in the meat.

Narwhal skin, known as mattak in Greenland, contains around 38 mg of vitamin C per 100 g [1]. In comparison, an orange usually contains around 50 mg of vitamin C per 100 g, but oranges do not naturally happen in the Arctic. Seal meat is much more nutritious than other meat food sources. The consumption of marine mammals has protected the Inuit from diseases like scurvy, a condition caused by vitamin C deficiency that was common in historical Western Arctic expeditions, as well as life-style diseases like cardio-vascular diseases, obesity or diabetes.

Nutritional value of seal meat and other animal food options © canadiansealproducts.com / Data from Shahidi & Synowiecki, 1996 [2]

Marine mammal species are long-lived top-predators, many at the top of the food chain. The food they eat can have high levels of toxins, as these build up through bioaccumulation and biomagnification. These contaminants can be dangerous for the people who eat the meat, and the Faroese and Greenlandic governments have given advice on the maximum amount of marine mammal meat that should be consumed.

Humpback whale blubber © Fernando Ugarte

Quick facts

  • The Arctic is warming at least two times faster than the rest of the planet, some studies saying even four times faster [1]
  • Climate change has both direct effects (such as warming sea temperature, loss of sea ice) and indirect effects (less sea ice will open new areas for human activities, changes in food webs)
  • While ice-dependent species (such as bearded seals and narwhals) will be severely negatively impacted, migrating sub-Arctic species (such as fin whales) might be positively impacted as they may be able to expand further north to a wider geographical area [for example, 2 ,3]

Discuss

Indigenous peoples and small coastal communities are among the first to experience the direct impacts of climate change, even though they contribute little to greenhouse gas emissions. Should regions that contribute more to greenhouse gas emission take responsibility?

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Biologi (BIO01‑02)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planleggje og gjennomføre undersøkingar, samle, behandle og tolke data, og presentere resultat og funn
  • utforske abiotiske og biotiske faktorar i eit økosystem, drøfte samanhengar som forklarer det biologiske mangfaldet og reflekter over naturens eigenverdi
  • utforske kva konsekvensar endringar i klima og arealutnytting kan ha for det biologiske mangfaldet, og drøfte tiltak for ei meir berekraftig forvaltning

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og dokumentere artsmangfald gjennom feltarbeid, drøfte resultat og funn og vurdere korleis artane er tilpassa økosystemet dei lever i

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • drøfte konsekvenser av klimaendringer for enkeltmennesker, samfunn og økosystem, og vurdere bærekraftige løsninger for hvordan enkeltmennesker og samfunn kan redusere og tilpasse seg klimaendringer i nåtid og framtid 

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og presentere geografiske forhold og prosessar ved å bruke ulike kjelder, inkludert kart
  • utforske kva endringar i klimaet har å seie for natur og samfunn lokalt, regionalt eller globalt

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • planlegge og gjennomføre et selvstendig arbeid med reelle datasett knyttet til naturvitenskapelige temaer og forhold, og analysere og presentere funn

Overgrazed kelp forest

Kelp forests are important underwater habitats in arctic and subarctic waters. They are large congregations of brown algae—kelp—that provide food and safety for many marine species and are recognised as one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth. Sea urchins are one of the species that feed on kelp. When population of sea urchins grow uncontrollably, due to their predators being removed from the food web, they overfeed on these forests and cause them to disappear, destroying entire ecosystem. Once the kelp is gone, it is replaced by other algal species that don’t have the same function as kelp.

(A) Healthy sugar kelp forest along the southern coast of Norway © K. Filbee-Dexter (B) Once kelp forest, now the seafloor is covered by a dense carpet of turf algae and rare kelp plant © T. Wernberg

Naturfag (NAT01‑04)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • analysere og bruke innsamlede data til å lage forklaringer, drøfte forklaringene i lys av relevant teori og vurdere kvaliteten på egne og andres utforskinger
  • gi eksempler på dagsaktuell forskning og drøfte hvordan ny kunnskap genereres gjennom samarbeid og kritisk tilnærming til eksisterende kunnskap

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • bruke, forklare og lage formler uttrykt med ord og symboler med utgangspunkt i en praktisk problemstilling

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • bearbeide, analysere og kritisk granske innhentede data alene og sammen med andre

Ideer og praktisk forskning (FIP01‑02)

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og drøfte egne og andres ideer og problemstillinger, og formulere spørsmål og hypoteser som grunnlag for videre undersøkelser
  • bearbeide, analysere og kritisk granske innhentede data alene og sammen med andre

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og reflektere over forskjeller og likheter mellom egne og andre menneskers kulturer, holdninger og levemåter i dialog med mennesker i andre land
  • drøfte etiske problemstillinger som gjelder menneskerettigheter, miljø eller forskjeller i levekår og utforske tiltak som kan bidra til å løse disse problemene

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • lage og løyse problem som omhandlar samansette måleiningar
  • lage, løyse og forklare likningar knytte til praktiske situasjonar

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske og argumentere for korleis framstillingar av tal og data kan brukast for å fremje ulike synspunk

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • lage, løyse og forklare likningssett knytte til praktiske situasjonar
  • modellere situasjonar knytte til reelle datasett, presentere resultata og argumentere for at modellane er gyldige

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • bruke, forklare og lage formler uttrykt med ord og symboler med utgangspunkt i en praktisk problemstilling
  • tolke og diskutere statistiske framstillinger knyttet til bærekraftig utvikling

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • utforske klimaavtrykket til matvarer og gjere greie for korleis matval og matforbruk kan påverke miljøet, klimaet og matsikkerheita

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • analysere og bruke innsamlede data til å lage forklaringer, drøfte forklaringene i lys av relevant teori og vurdere kvaliteten på egne og andres utforskinger
  • gi eksempler på dagsaktuell forskning og drøfte hvordan ny kunnskap genereres gjennom samarbeid og kritisk tilnærming til eksisterende kunnskap

Mål for opplæringen er at eleven skal kunne:

  • beskrive ulike dimensjonar ved berekraftig utvikling og korleis dei påverkar kvarandre, og presentere tiltak for meir berekraftige samfunn

Wildlife

Animal and plant species that have not been domesticated and can live in their natural habitat. It also includes all the organisms who live in their environments without being introduced to humans.

Stress

Biological response to environmental pressures or threats that disrupt the balance in the body. It triggers adaptive behaviours and physiological changes aimed at survival. It is a survival mechanism that helps animals respond to and cope with environmental challenges, but chronic stress can be harmful.

Seafloor destruction

The physical and ecological damage or degradation of the ocean floor caused by natural events or human activities, leading to the loss of marine habitats, biodiversity, and ecosystem functions.

Seafloor damage caused by dredging for scallops © Howard Wood/COAST

Parasite

An organism that lives in or on a host, organism of a different species, and uses that organisms’ resources at the detriment of the host organism.

Overfishing

The practise of catching fish at higher rate than the population or stock has a chance to recover. To simplify, there are not enough adults that can reproduce and keep the population healthy. Overfishing leads do decrease in population numbers and can even lead to crashes of the whole fishing grounds.

Ocean warming

The process of raising sea water temperatures caused by the Earth’s atmosphere trapping more heat due to greenhouse gas emissions, with the oceans absorbing most of this excess heat. The ocean warming can have catastrophic consequences on all life, both in the water, but also on land.

Schematic visualisation of ocean warming © Copernicus Marine Service

Ocean acidification

The process of sea water becoming more acidic (lower pH value) caused by the excess of the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolving in the water and forming acid. The levels of carbon dioxide are rising due to different human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes. The ocean acidification causes issues for all life in the ocean.

Schematic visualisation of ocean acidification © Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Nutrient

A substance found in food, such as proteins, sugars, fats, or vitamins, that provides the body with the necessary fuel and materials to grow, develop, and maintain health.

Nursing

The ability of female mammals to produce food for their offspring. The mammary glands produce milk that is rich in all the nutrients that the offspring needs for optimal growth and development. The milk content differs from species to species, depending on what the young need for its development.

Harp seal pup nursing on its mother © Ann Harvey

Mitigation

The action undertaken to reduce or minimise the severity, seriousness or the negative consequences of something. For example, different rules and regulations made to help fight the negative effects of climate change.

Mining

The process of digging a valuable material, minerals, from the Earth. Mining can be surface or underground. In surface mining, the minerals are extracted from near the Earth’s surface and this type can be very destructive to surrounding area. The underground mining consists of taking minerals from deep under the surface by digging or blasting the tunnels. This can also be very dangerous as it can lead to collapse of the tunnels and trapping the miners but also effecting the surrounding environment.

Miners walking to an underground mining tunnel © Shahir Chundra

Guideline

A general rule, principle or a piece of information. An information that suggests or instructs on how activity needs to be performed, or how people need to behave in a given situation.

Dredging

The mechanical process of removing sediment, debris, or other material from the bottom of bodies of water such as rivers, harbours, lakes, or oceans. It is done to keep waterways deep enough for ships, support port construction, extract underwater resources like sand, prevent flooding by clearing blockages, and clean up polluted sediments. Dredging can harm marine ecosystems by destroying habitats on the sea floor, increasing water turbidity, and disturbing or displacing marine life. It may also release pollutants trapped in the sediment, affecting water quality and the health of nearby organisms.

Excavator dredger © Sillerkiil

Disturbance

An event or action that changes or interrupts the natural behaviour of animals or environment. In this context we are talking about human activities that cause negative changes on the environment.

Cumulative impacts

Cumulative impacts are the combined effects of multiple activities or environmental changes over time that, together, cause greater harm to ecosystems than each would individually. They build up gradually, often leading to significant long-term damage that may not be apparent from any single action alone.

Biodiversity

All different plant and animal species that live in the same habitat. The level of biodiversity can be a good indicator of the state of the habitat.

Aquaculture

In simple terms, aquaculture is farming in the water, both fresh and sea. It is the breeding, raising, and harvesting aquatic organisms, such as fish, shellfish, crabs, or algae for profit.

Salmon farm © Erik Christensen

Algal bloom

Quick growth in the population of algae in fresh or marine water systems. It is usually characterized by the changes in colouration of the sea depending on which species of algae have caused the bloom (red, brown or green). These blooms are result of excessive amount of nutrients in their environment that allow algae populations to grow rapidly. These blooms have harmful effect on the environment and rest of the species that live in the area. First, these massive colonies limit the amount of light that penetrates the surface. Also, often times these blooms start producing toxins as a by-products of their metabolism which is harmful to all the life in surrounding areas.

Large algal bloom in the Lake Erie (USA) in 2017 that was seen from space © NASA/USGS satellite

Uumassusilerineq

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Issuagaqarluni assersuusiornerup iluani assersuusiat uumassusilerinermi atorsinnaallugillu nalilersorsin- naassagaat.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartup piusuusaartitat atorlugit uumasut aallar­ tartut aallajuitsullu ukiup ingerlanerani uumasarne­ rat sanilliussinnaavaa. Atuartup uumasut aallartartut aallajuitsullu ukiup ingerlanerani uumasarnerat ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Issuagaqarluni assersuusiornerup iluani assersuusiat pinngortitaleriffiusumik nunalerinermi atorsinnaallugillu nalilersorsinnaassagaat.

Nunarsuaq

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartup nunap assingi assigiin- ngitsut atorsinnaavai aammalu allorniusat tukimukartut sani- mukartullu atorlugit sumiiffinnik tikkuussisinnaalluni. Atuartup nunap assingi, nunap assinginik atuaaneq ilisarnaatillu nassuiaataasut ilisi- masaqarfigivai.

Uumassusilerineq pillugu ilikkagassatut anguniakkat

Misissuneq

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Atuartut uumassusilerinermi misissuinissanik aaqqissuisinnaassasut, ingerlatsisinnaassasut nalilersuisinnaassasullu.

Allanngoriartorneq (Evolutioni)

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartoq uumassusillit uumassusilinnut pissuse­ qatiminnut atasuuneran­ nik misissuisinnaavoq. Atuartup uumassusillit aaqqissugaasumik nalu­ naarsugaanerat uumassu­ silinnillu immikkoortiteri­ saatsit ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaartut (fødekæder) nerisareqatigiiaarnerillu (fødenet) misissorsinnaavai. Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaarnerat (fødekæder) nerisareqa­ tigiiaartuunerlu (fødenet) ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Isumalluutit piujuaannartitsinerlu

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartup isumalluutit uumassusillit aalajangersi­ masut pissutsillu taakku­ nunnga sunniuteqartartut misissorsinnaavai. Atuartup isumalluutit uumassusillit pissutsillu taakkununnga sunniute­ qartartut ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Issuagaqarluni assersuusiornerup iluani assersuusiat uumassusilerinermi atorsinnaallugillu nalilersorsin- naassagaat.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaartut (fødekæder), nerisareqatigiiaar­ tut (fødenet) nukinnillu atuisar­ nerup pyramideatut takussutis­ siaralugit nammineq sanaaminik piusuusaartitaliarisinnaavai. Atuartup nerisat uiguleriiaartut (fødekæder), nerisareqatigiiaar­ tut (fødenet) nukinnillu atuisarnerup pyramideata imminnut ataqatigiinnerat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Isumalluutit piujuaannartitsinerlu

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartup piusuusaartitat ator­ lugit uumasut aalajangersima­ sut uumasoqatigiillutik uumaf­ fimminni amerlassutsimikkut imminnut sunniivigeqatigiit­ tarnerat nassuiarsinnaavaa.
Atuartup uumasut aalajanger­ simasut uumasoqatigiillutik uumaffimminni amerlassutsi­ mikkut imminnut sunniivigeqatigiittarnerat ilisimasaqarfigivaa.

Ilikkagassatut anguniagassat: Paasisat aallaavigalugit sanilliussinerup iluani uumassusilerineq avatangiisinut sanillersuussinnaassa- gaat, atuartitissutillu imaa pinngortitamut ilisimatusarnermik ineriartortitsinermut sanillersuussinnaas- sagaat.

Pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartup pinngortitami ataqa­ tigiinnernut sunniutit pinngor­ titami namminermi pisartut inuullu pilersitai, silap pissu­ siata allanngoriartornera ilan­ ngullugu isumaliutigisinnaavai. Atuartup pinngortitami ataqatigiinnerit allannguutaasa kinguneri, silap pissusiata allanngoriartornera ilanngul­ lugu ilisimasaqarfigivai.
Atuartup uumassusillit assi­ giinngiiaartut amerlangaarsu­ siisa pingaarutaat nassuiarsin­ naavaa uumassusillillu assigiin­ ngiiaartut amerlangaarsusiisa annertusitinnissaannut suliniuti­ nik siunnersuuteqarsinnaalluni. Atuartup uumassusillit assigiinngiiaartut amerlangaarsusaat taassumunngalu sunniu­ teqartartut ilisimasa­ qarfigivai.

Isumalluutit piujuaannartitsinerlu

Pisinnaasassat Ilisimasassat
Atuartup inuup pinngorti­ tamut qanoq sunniuteqartar­ nera najugaqarfinnilu pinngortitamut suut suliniutaasinnaanersut isumaliutigisinnaavai. Atuartup najugaqarfinni pinngortitamut suliniutaasinnaasut ilisimasaqarfigivai.

Whale oil

Oil derived from whales. Whale oil extracted from different species has different names and uses. The sperm oil is extracted from sperm whales, train oil from baleen whales, and melon oil from small toothed whales.

Samples of whale oil © Martha’s Vineyard Museum

Vessel

A ship or a boat. Craft used for navigation on the water.

Statsraad Lehmkuhl, one of the world’s largest and oldest sailing ships in operational service © Bruno Girin

Selkie

Creatures from Celtic and Norse mythology. Shapeshifters that can change form between seals and humans by removing or putting on their seal skin.

Illustration of a Selkie woman changing into her seal form © Nataša Ilinčić

Overexploitation

Harvesting a renewable resource, like animal or plant species, to the point where it exceeds the reproduction of the resource. That means that the removal of the resource exceeds the ability of the resource to renew itself and can therefore lead to threats to the populations, or the species, and in the end the whole ecosystems.

Moratorium

A temporary delay or suspension of activity, law or payment. In our context, the moratorium reefers to the cessation of the hunt of large whales in 1985 onwards. That means that from that since, the member countries of the IWC have stopped whale hunt, with the exception of Iceland and Norway.

Global North

Global North and Global South are the terms used to group countries based on their defining characteristics with regard to socioeconomics and politics. More specifically, the Global North consists of the world’s developed countries, whereas the Global South consists of the world’s developing countries and least developed countries. The terms do not reefer to the Northern and Southern hemisphere, as some of the countries of Global North are located in the geographical south, and vice versa.

Economic classification of the world’s countries and territories by the UNCTAD in 2023: the Global North is highlighted in blue, and the Global South is highlighted in red © United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)

Game piece

Pieces used in board games, like chess or checkers. The game pieces were historically carved from different natural materials like wood and ivory, and in some countries that were whale hunting countries, they were made from marine mammal bones.

12th centaury chess pieces called the Lewis Chessmen named after the island they were found at. The pieces are carved out of walrus ivory and whales’ teeth © National Museums Scotland

Beaked whales

Family of toothed whales counting 22 species. They are the least known of all whale species because they mostly stay in deep ocean. There are many things we still don’t know about them, as they are oceanic species, meaning they keep away from the shores, they stay away from boats, and are difficult to observe and identify. Almost everything we know about these animals we learned from stranded animals. They are named after their extended snout, and most species of this family only have one pair of tusk-like teeth only visible in males.

All known species of beaked whales © Jörg Mazur

Wilderness

Area or region that is undisturbed by the human activity. Regions that are uncultivated and not inhabited by humans.

Clements Mountain, over a million acres of federally protected wilderness area in Montana, USA © Lawrence Stolt

Septum

In anatomy, septum is a wall that divides a larger cavity or structure into smaller parts. For example, nasal septum is a cartilages wall that separates nose into two separate structures.

Nasal septum © Spirox, Inc. 2017

Qajaq

Greenlandic word for kayak. Small, one-person wooden vessel used by Indigenous people for hunting and transportation. In Greenland, it is traditionally made from seal skin stretched over a frame made od whalebone or driftwood.

Traditional Greenlandic qajaq © Ville Miettinen

Monitoring

Monitoring is the activity that ensures that something is happening in accordance with rules and regulations. In the context of hunting, monitoring is conducted to make sure that animals are hunted in compliance with welfare standards, safety standards for the hunters, and that scientific advice for hunted stocks is being followed.

Marine protected areas

A marine protected area (MPA) is a clearly defined region established to conserve marine biodiversity, ecosystem health, and cultural heritage. As part of a globally connected network, MPAs help safeguard marine resources while ensuring the continued supply of essential ecosystem services. Effects of MPAs can be seen not just in the areas themselves, but also surrounding areas, as marine life “spills” over the boarders of the MPA increasing biodiversity and biomass in the areas around MPA. Not all MPAs have the same level of protection: while some are fully protected and nothing can be taken from there, some allow for some level of extraction.

Figure showing the effect of different levels of protection in MPAs © Adapted from Ferreira et al. 2022

Anthropogenic

Of human origin. Changes in the environment or pollution caused by human activities such as farming, mining, fishing, or other human activities.

Sea ice

Frozen sea water. It covers part of the Arctic and Antarctic regions throughout the year, and also forms seasonally in some regions.

Harp seals on sea ice © Garry Stenson / DFO Canada

Vertebrae

Irregularly shaped bones that form vertebral column or spine. Vertebrate animals were named for having a spine, compared to invertebrates which don’t have it. The role of the spine is to protect spinal cord, as well stabilise pelvic bones and upper body, and allow movement.

Vertebrae that form lower spine in humans © Anatomy.app

Bottom feeder

Animals that feed on other organisms that live on or near the bottom of a body of water.

Circumpolar

Distribution type where species occur over a wide range of longitudes, but only in high latitudes. That means that species can be found all around either the North or the South Pole. An example of species with circumpolar distribution is a polar bear.

Circumpolar distribution of polar bears © Wikipedia

Lipid-rich

Fish species that have high content of omega-3 fatty acids and other beneficial fats. Some of those species are mackerel, herring, salmon, and capelin.

Sexual dimorphism

Phenomenon when members of the same species and opposite sexes have difference in appearance. It can be size, shape, colour, or different organs.

Sexual dimorphism in killer whales. Longer dorsal fin of male compared to female © Fernando Ugarte

Ulo knife

Also known as ulu, or a women’s knife. Traditional all-purpose knife used by Indigenous women of Arctic. It is used for all kinds of purposes, from skinning and cleaning animals, to cutting hair or food, and even trimming ice blocks.

Traditional West Greenlandic ulo knife © Lisa Risager

Polynya

Large, open-water areas within pack ice. They can be coastal or open-ocean.

Polynya © Jeff Schmaltz / NASA

Melon

A round, fatty organ located in the forehead of the toothed whales and used in echolocation and communication. Its function is to focus and adjust animals’ vocalisation. It also acts as a sound lens.

Melon of bottlenose dolphin © McKenna et al. 2007

Leads

Leads in sea ice are linear fractures in sea ice that occur at any time of the year. They can extend for hundreds of kilometres and can be from a few to several hundreds of metres in width.

A lead in sea ice © Joe MacGregor / NASA

Entrapment

Even when a pod of whales gets surrounded by ice due to rapidly forming sea ice. Whales are unable to leave the entrapment, and this can lead to death of some or all pod members.

Beluga entrapment © Kristin Laidre

Poultry

Domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of harvesting animal products such as meat, eggs, and feathers.

Caption © Credit

Pack ice

Any area of sea ice that is not attached to the land and is made up of smaller parts that have frozen together. Because it is not attached, pack ice can move. It expands during the winter and recedes during the summer.

Pack ice in the waters off Antarctica © Armin Rose/Shutterstock.com / Encyclopædia Britannica

Omnivores

All animals that eat both plants or phytoplankton and other animals.

Adaptive management

Adaptive management is a structured, step-by-step approach to improving resource management by learning from the outcomes of past decisions. It involves making decisions in the face of uncertainty, closely monitoring the results, and adjusting strategies over time. The goal is to reduce uncertainty and improve decision-making by continuously refining practices based on what is learned. It emphasises accountability and clarity in each decision-making step, allowing for flexibility and better long-term management of resources.

Adaptive Management Cycle © Adapted from Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Marine and Atmospheric Research

Ecosystem-based management

According to NOAA, ecosystem-based management is an integrated approach that incorporates the entire ecosystem, including humans, into resource management decisions, and is guided by an adaptive management approach.

Ecosystem based management © NOAA

Herbivores

All animals that feed on plants or phytoplankton.

Manatee grazing on seagrass © Carol Grant / Oceangrant Images

Photosynthesis

Process in which primary producers—plants and phytoplankton—use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce energy in the form of sugar glucose and oxygen.

Lanugo

Soft, white, fine hair that covers the body of a seal pup inside of the uterus. Most pups have their first moult, shedding lanugo while still in-utero, but some, like ringed or harps seals are born white and covered with lanugo and shed it only after they are born.

Harp seal pup covered with lanugo © Michale Poltermann / IMR

Whiskers

Specialised, stiff, functional hairs on the face of mammals used to sense their surrounding environment.

Long whiskers of bearded seal © Kerryn London / Flickr

Spade-shaped tooth

Broader and flatter teeth that harbour porpoise have. This shape resembles shovel and is good for grasping and holding onto slippery prey, like fish.

Spade-shaped tooth of a harbour porpoise © Monterey Bay Aquarium

Cone-shaped tooth

This type of teeth are pointed, sharp and in a shape of a cone. Dolphins have teeth like this. This shape helps them grip and tear into their prey more effectively, as they often hunt larger or more agile fish.

Cone-shaped dolphin teeth © Monterey Bay Aquarium

Spyhopping

A type of surfacing behaviour where a whale is upright with its head coming out of water and then sinking gently back to water without splashing. It is used by animals to survey the environment around them.

Killer whale spyhopping © Norwegian Orca Survey

Secondary sexual characteristics

Physical characteristics that indicate the sex of the organism but are not directly related to reproductive system. They are developed later in life when organism reaches sexual maturity. Secondary sexual characteristics usually have a role in securing a mate and reproduction. Some examples are antlers in stags, peacocks’ long tail, tusk in narwhals, or hood of the hooded seals.

Different examples of secondary sexual characteristics

Lobtailing

A form of social behaviour of cetaceans where an animal lifts its tail fluke above the water and brings it down with force. The result is a big splash. They display this behaviour in order to call attention to other individuals.

Killer whale lobtailing © Norwegian Orca Survey

Ecotype

A geographical variation. Population that belongs to a species but is genetically distinct from the rest of the population. Ecotypes are adapted to a specific environmental condition and often look different from rest of the population.

Difference between an ecotype Kangia ringed seal and typical ringed seal

Descendant

A plant or an animal that is related to a particular plant or animal that lived before them.

Cosmopolite

A species that can be found almost anywhere on the Earth.

Example of a distribution map of a cosmopolitan species (Orcinus orca) ©

IUCN

Canine

Single-pointed tooth adapted for tearing or piercing food. They are positioned next to, or behind the front teeth.

Harbour seal skull showing its canines © Puget Sound Museum of Natural History

Breaching

Behaviour where a whale launches most or all of its body out of the water.

Breaching humpback whale © Fernando Ugarte

Bow-riding

Behaviour where toothed whales swim at the front of a moving boat, or even a large whale, riding the pressure waves created by its bow. By positioning themselves correctly, they can be propelled forward with little effort, often leaping and surfing along the boat’s wake.

Two bottlenose dolphins bow-riding © Bernd Würsig

Gillnet

Type of fishing gear. A wall of nett that hangs in the water column. It is made so that fishes head can pass through the mesh size but not their body, so their gills get stuck in the net.

Gillnet © NOAA Fisheries

Longline (fishing)

A fishing method that uses long main line with baited hooks evenly spaced and attached to the main line by short branch lines.

Longline fishing © NOAA Fisheries

Soundscape

Acoustic environment. All the sounds produced by organisms and environmental elements in a particular habitat or ecosystem. It includes all the sounds organisms make, but also the sounds that come from wind, water, and moving of the earth.

Dálking

The addition of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or any form of energy (such as heat, sound, or radioactivity) to the environment at a rate faster than it can be dispersed, diluted, decomposed, recycled, or stored in some harmless form (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Fitness

The ability of organism to survive and reproduce in the environment they are in.

Decompression sickness

Also known as divers’ disease or bends. It happens when a person or animal ascend to surface too quickly. Because of the sudden changes in pressure, the dissolved nitrogen in the blood gets released in the form of bubbles in the bloodstream and tissues and can cause different symptoms, such as fatigue, dizziness, neurological disturbances, pains…

Decompression sickness diagram © Coral Grand Divers

Precipitation

Any form of water, liquid or frozen, that forms in the atmosphere and falls back to the earth.

Different types of precipitation © Eschooltoday

Food insecurity

According to FAO, a person is food insecure when they lack regular access to enough safe and nutritious food for normal growth and development and an active and healthy life. This may be due to unavailability of food and/or lack of resources to obtain food.

Fløkja

Process in which animal becomes trapped in human-made objects, including marine debris, abandoned (ghost) fishing gear, and active fishing equipment.

Juvenile Antarctic fur seal entangled in fishing net © Nico de Bruyn

Taxonomy

Branch of science that deals with identification, classification, and naming extant (currently living) and extinct (no longer living, fossils) organisms based on shared characteristics. The current way of naming species was developed by Carl Linnaeus and it is called binominal (binary) nomenclature. According to it, each name species consists of two names, the first is the name of the genus to which species belongs to and the second name distinguishes the species withing the genus.

Taxonomy of a humpback whale © Modified from Dawn Witherington / NOAA

Environment

Everything that surrounds someone or something, natural world, or human made. The conditions that surround a person, animal, or a plant and that influence their growth, health, and all natural processes (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Components of environment © GeeksforGeeks

The UN – United Nation

The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945 with the intended purpose of maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, achieving international cooperation, and serving as a centre for coordinating the actions of member nations. Currently made up of 193 Member States.

The UN logo

Stock

A unit of a species or population; should be designated and managed in such a way that the population and/or species as a whole persists throughout its range; often comprises a breeding population that occupies the same regions annually (NAMMCO).

Species

The basic unit of taxonomy. Consists of individuals who share common morphological and physical characteristics and can interbreed and give fertile offspring.

School of fish

A name for a group of fish swimming together.

School of herring © iStock

Satellite tagging

Research method used to track the movements and behaviours of animals, particularly those in marine or remote environments. This technique involves attaching a tag equipped with a satellite transmitter to the animal. As the animal moves, the tag sends data via satellite, which researchers can then analyse to gain insights into migration patterns, habitat use, and environmental interactions.

Satellite tag on a Kangia ringed seal © Aqqalu Rosing-Asvid

Pollutant

Harmful material in the environment. A substance that makes the land, water, air and other media dirty, and not safe and suitable for use.

Water pollution © Encyclopædia Britannica

Pod

Social groups of marine mammals that share strong bonds. These groups have established hierarchy, and usually consist of family members.

Pod of killer whales © Fernando Ugarte

NASS-North Atlantic Sighting Surveys

NASS are internationally coordinated cetacean surveys conducted in 1987, 1989, 1995, 2001, 2007, 2015, and 2024. These surveys are among the most extensive wildlife assessments, with primary objective to obtain quantitative data on the distribution and abundance of all cetacean species across the survey area, spanning the northern North Atlantic from Norway to North America.

Planned and completed tracks for NASS 2024 Survey © NAMMCO

MINTAG Project

MINTAG Project is funded by NAMMCO and Fisheries Agency Japan. The main goal of the project is to develop a new satellite tracking tool that can generate data crucial to improving the management and conservation of lesser-known whale species, such as fin, minge, sei, and Bryde’s whales.

Tagging of minke whale with a MINTAG Tag in Greenland 2023 © Fernando Ugarte

Lunge feeding

Feeding method of baleen whales where a whale rushes towards their prey with their mouth open and catches the prey in one go.

Humpback whale using lunge feeding © Iain Brownlee / Alamy Stock Photo

Interdisciplinary

Relating to more than one branch of science, e.g. biology, physic, math, sociology…

Indigenous knowledge

A body of observations, oral and written knowledge, innovations, practices, and beliefs developed by Tribes and Indigenous Peoples through interaction and experience with the environment. It is applied to phenomena across biological, physical, social, cultural, and spiritual systems. Indigenous Knowledge can be developed over millennia, continues to develop, and includes understanding based on evidence acquired through direct contact with the environment and long-term experiences, as well as extensive observations, lessons, and skills passed from generation to generation (Guidance for United States Federal Departments and Agencies on Indigenous Knowledge).

Human activity

The role that humans play in the environment and ecosystems they are a part of. It includes all the intentional and unintentional effects on the environment. In the marine environment, those are activities such as hunting, fishing, bycatch, noise and chemical pollution, habitat destruction, introduction of invasive species, changes in chemical composition of sea, and so on.

Coexistence

Living or existing at the same time in the same place. Ability of different species to live together in the same ecosystem without one driving the other to extinction. It addresses how species interact, compete for resources, and establish stable populations within a shared habitat.

Habitat

Place where an organism or a community of organisms lives, including all living and non-living factors or conditions of the surrounding environment (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Arctic Council

The Arctic Council is as an intergovernmental platform dedicated to tackling the challenges faced by both Arctic governments and the Indigenous communities inhabiting the region. The Arctic Council is formed by eight member states, each with sovereignty over territories within the Arctic Circle: Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States.

Bubble net feeding

A learned, cooperative feeding strategy that involves a group of whales. Humpback whales and Bryde’s whales use this strategy. A whales circle a school of small fish or swarms of krill they are hunting and start blowing bubbles. The fish are unable to escape this “net” of bubbles and stay trapped. Then whales swim with their mouths open through the trapped fish, and effectively feed themselves.

1. Bubble net feeding mechanism © Sharma & Sharma, 2023; 2. Humpback whales deploying bubble net feeding strategy © K. Kosma/Royal Society Open Science 2019

Western science

Often referred to as a modern science. Systematic approach to understanding the natural world that is rooted using the scientific method. This involves formulating hypotheses, conducting experiments, observing outcomes, and drawing conclusions based on data.

Welfare

Care about well-being of animals. In context of hunt, welfare is making sure the least amount of suffering and highest possible instant death rates in the hunt.

Tusk

A long tooth that animals such elephants, walruses, and narwhals have.

1. Atlantic walrus tusks © Christian Lydersen. 2. Narwhal tusks © Glenn Williams NIST

True seal

Also known as “earless” seals, true seals belong to a group of pinnipeds that have ear holes, but lack an external ear flap. While sea lions belong to the group of pinnipeds, they are not true seals because they have ear flaps. Grey seals instead, are true seals.

True, or “earless” seal (harbour seal) © Michael Poltermann

Trophic level

Step in a food chain or an ecosystem. The organisms of a chain are classified into these levels on the basis of their feeding behaviour (Encyclopædia Britannica).

The trophic levels pyramid © The University of Waikato Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato

Trawl

A large net with the form of a cone that is dragged along the sea bottom to gather fish or other marine life.

Twin bottom trawl © The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

Traditional Ecological Knowledge

Knowledge, practices, and beliefs about relationships between living beings in a specific ecosystem that is acquired by indigenous people over hundreds or thousands of years through direct contact with the environment, handed down through generations, and used for life-sustaining ways. This knowledge includes the relationships between people, plants, animals, natural phenomena, landscapes, and timing of events for activities such as hunting, fishing, trapping, agriculture, and forestry. It encompasses the world view of a people, which includes ecology, spirituality, human and animal relationships, and more (Synopsis of Traditional Ecological Knowledge, National Park Service).

Toxin

A poisonous substance that is a product of metabolic activities of another living organism.

Top predator

Also known as apex predator. Any carnivorous animal that is at the top of the food chain and has no natural predators. One of the most well-known top predators of the marine environment are killer whales.

Tail fluke

Triangular ending of a whales’ tail. Unique to every whale, similar to fingerprints in humans. Tail flukes are often used for identifying individuals.

Identifying traits on a humpback whale tail © Rhys Watkin

Sustenance

Food and drink that are a source of life, something that keeps someone or something alive.

Sustainable use

The use of a resource in a way that it does not lead to the long-term degradation of the environment, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations (Glossary of terms to negotiators or MEAs, 2007). NAMMCO is committed to the sustainable and responsible use of marine resources by developing effective conservation and management measures for marine mammals, while acknowledging the rights and needs of coastal communities. The sustainable use of marine mammals by coastal communities contributes to a lower environmental footprint, improved livelihoods, and economic growth, and support seven of the SDGs.

Sustainable food systems

A food system that delivers food security and nutrition for all.

Factors of Sustainable food systems © Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO)

Sustainability

The long-term viability of a community, set of social institutions, or societal practice. In general, sustainability is understood as a form of intergenerational ethics in which the environmental and economic actions taken by present persons do not diminish the opportunities of future persons to enjoy similar levels of wealth, utility, or welfare (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Survival rate

The percentage of individual who survive from one age group to the next, or percentage of survivors after a disease or mass mortality event.

Survey

Generally, survey is a systematic method of collecting information or data. There are different types of surveys, one of them being abundance surveys. This term refers specifically to the assessment of the quantity and distribution of a particular species or resource within a specified area. These surveys aim to estimate population sizes, density, and trends over time. Abundance surveys are important as they as they help researchers understand ecosystem health, make informed management decisions, and monitor changes in biodiversity. Methods may include direct counts, sampling, and remote sensing techniques. One example of abundance survey is the NASS-North Atlantic Sighting Surveys.

Surface skim feeding

Feeding method of baleen whales where whale slowly swims near the surface with its mouth open, filtering the prey as it moves forward.

Sei whale surface skim feeding © 7SeasWhaleWatch

Superpod

An aggregation of whales consisting of many smaller pods that gather for feeding, mating, or socialising. These superpods can count hundreds of whales. Sperm and killer whales are known to form these superpods.

Superpod of sperm whales © Tony Wu

Stranding

A phenomenon that occurs when marine mammals are found dead in the beach or the water or injured but alive close to shore and cannot return to the water, individually or in groups.

Stranded North Atlantic right whale © Tucker Joenz/Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission

Stakeholders

Any individual, social group, or actor who possesses an interest, a legal obligation, a moral right, or other concern in the decisions or outcomes of an organisation. Stakeholders either affect or are affected by the achievement of an organisation’s objectives (Encyclopædia Britannica). In the case of NAMMCO, stakeholders include all individuals who have an interested in the management and conservation of marine mammals, such as, managers, scientists, hunters, and tourists.

Squid beak

Mouth of a squid and beginning of a digestive system. Hard, indigestible material that is left in stomachs of whales that prey on squids. Beaks remaining in stomachs of sperm whales is one of the proofs of existence of colossal squid.

Squid beak © Mark Conlin/Alamy Stock Photo

Spermaceti

A liquid substance at body temperature, and waxy solid on lower temperatures, found in the heads of sperm and bottlenose whales. Humans used this substance in cosmetics, wax candles, ointments, textile finishing, and as industrial lubricant (Encyclopædia Britannica).

A sample of spermaceti wax, a spermaceti candle, and a jar of sperm oil © Genevieve Anderson

Spectogram

A visual representation of a sound. It shows frequencies that make a sound and how they change over time. When used in audio context, it is also called sonograph, voiceprint, or voicegram.

Weddell seal spectrogram © Screenshot from Sound in the Sea

Seine (fishing) net

A large net deployed in a way that encircles an entire area, creating a wall of netting.

Seine fishing net © NOAA Fisheries

Resource

Any biological, mineral, or aesthetic asset afforded by nature without human intervention that can be used for some form of benefit, whether material (economic) or immaterial (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Regulation

A rule or an instruction that authority issues and controls its implementation. These regulations help guide behaviour, manage risks, and uphold societal values through enforceable standards.

Pup

A young, baby, seal.

A harp seal mother and a pup © Michael Poltermann

Policymaking

The process of formulating and implementing policies to address societal issues by establishing boundaries, determining relevant themes, and legitimising participants in the decision-making process. Policymaking creates the rules, while decision–making implements actions based on those rules.

Pectoral fin

Also known as flipper. A fin located in the side of a marine mammal.

Pectoral fin of a bottlenose dolphin © Fernando Ugarte

Nutritional value

The measure of a well-balanced ratio of essential nutrients including carbohydrates, fat, protein, minerals, and vitamins in items of food.

NGO

Non-governmental organisation (NGO). According to the United Nations, an NGO is an non-profit organisation, group, or institution that operates independently from a Government, and has humanitarian or development objectives.

Nanoplastics

Plastic fragments smaller than 1 micrometre in size. It is formed as a result of the of microplastics breaking down from exposure to time and weather elements.

Moulting

The natural process in which an animal loses its feathers, skin, or hair at a particular time of year so that new feathers, skin, or hair can grow.

Láturkópanósi í hamskifti © Sandra Granquist

Mortality rate

The number of deaths in a given population over a period of time of a defined cause. For example, number of dead individuals per 100,000 population from a disease.

Microplastics

Plastic fragments smaller than 5 mm in length (according to NOAA and European Chemicals Agency) that are present as a consequence of the plastic pollution. There are two types: primary and secondary. Primary microplastics are microbeads, plastic pellets, and plastic fibres used in personal care products, as a raw material, or in clothing. Secondary microplastics is a product of larger plastic breakdown from exposure to elements and time.

Different sources and types of microplastics © Encounter Edu

Methane (CH₄)

A chemical compound formed by one carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms. It is the main compound of natural gas and one of the most potent greenhouse gases.

Methane molecule © Ben Mills

Mattak

A traditional food in Inuit, Chukchi and Nenets cuisine consisting of sliced whale skin with blubber.

Mattak © Lisa Risager

Matriarchal

Societal structure in which positions of power are held by female individuals. Some animal societies, like killer whale pods are an example of matriarchal societies. In their pods, the oldest female—grandmother—has a leading role.

Mating

The process of pairing animals from the same species for the purpose of sexual reproduction.

Marine debris

Any human-made object that ends up in the marine environment such as straws, soda bottles, plastic grocery bags, etc.

Beach covered with human made trash © NOAA Fisheries

Livelihood

Means of securing the basic necessities of life, such as food, shelter, and clothing. In simple terms, it is all ways people earn a living, including employment, self-employment, agriculture, fishing, and other income-generating activities.

Lair

A cave-like place where a wild animal lives. Ringed seals use snow lairs as shelters from the extreme cold temperatures and harsh weather conditions, as well as for giving birth and nursing their pups.

Diagram and photograph of ringed seal snow lair

IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature

Established in 1948, IUCN is the world’s largest environmental network, composed by over 1,400 member organisations, including governments and civil society. Its mission is to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable.

IUCN logo

Intestine

Bowel. Muscular tube extending from the stomach to the anus. The primary purpose is food digestion, and either absorption of the nutrients or expelling of the residue.

Indigenous whaling

Whaling conducted by native communities for subsistence, cultural practises, and traditional purposes. This type of hunt is generally well regulated to ensure sustainability and respect for cultural heritage.

Traditional way of narwhal hunting in Greenland © Kristin Laidre

Hertz (Hz)

The unity of frequency in the International System of Units (SI). It measures the number of cycles per second of a periodic phenomenon, e.g. one hertz corresponds to one cycle occurring in one second.

Haul out

A behaviour that pinnipeds have when they temporarily leave the water for reproducing or resting, among other things.

Hauled out walruses © Fernando Ugarte

Harpoon

A barbed spear used to kill whales, tuna, swordfish, and other large sea creatures, formerly thrown by hand but now, in the case of whales, shot from specially constructed guns (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Whaling harpoon © Encyclopædia Britannica

Grindadráp

A traditional method of drive hunting practiced in the Faroe Islands involves herding various species of whales and dolphins, predominantly pilot whales, into shallow bays where they are then beached and hunted.

Greenhouse gases

Gases present in Earth’s atmosphere that trap heat by allowing sunlight to pass through but preventing the heat from escaping back into space. The primary greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons.

The effect that greenhouse gases have on heating of the Earth’s surface © Wikipedia

Ghost (fishing) line

Fishing equipment that has been lost, abandoned, or discarded in the ocean. This gear continues to float or drift in the water, often being carried by currents and winds, without being actively controlled or used, and posing serious threats to marine life and their habitats.

A fish caught in discarded fishing net © Flavio Vitiello

Frequency

The number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time.

Food web

A complex network of interconnecting and overlapping food chains showing feeding relationships within a community (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Food security

The condition in which all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and preferences for an active and healthy life (World Food Summit, 1996).

Feeback loop

In climate change, a feedback loop is a mechanism that either accelerates or decelerates a temperature trend. A positive feedback loop increases the rate of temperature rise, while a negative feedback loop decreases it.

Echolocation

A biological sonar used by toothed whales to determine the location of objects using sound. The echolocation is used for orientation in the space, for hunting, and in social interactions. Toothed whales have a special organ in the front of their head—melon—made of fatty tissue that acts as a sound lens.

Echolocation mechanism © Zainuddin Lubis (2016)

Decision-making

The process of selecting a course of action from available alternatives based on the analysis of information, estimation of probabilities, and assigning values to anticipated outcomes. A decision usually concerns a specific situation. For example, managers deciding on the number of animals that can be hunted based on the available scientific data.

Cuttlebone

Also known as cuttlefish bone. Thick, internal, calcified shell that helps cuttlefish regulate buoyancy.

Cuttlebone © Mariko GODA

Citizen science

Research conducted with members from the general public and/or nonprofessional researchers that has the potential to involve people who are not usually involved in science, and thus bring closer the science, decision making, and society as a whole for the benefit of all.

Carbon tunnel vision

A concept that refers to the narrow focus on decreasing carbon dioxide emissions when addressing climate change, overlooking the broader spectrum of sustainable measures needed to tackle climate change.

Carbon tunnel vision diagram © New Perspective

Carbon footprint

The amount of carbon dioxide and other carbon-based greenhouse gas, such as methane, emissions associated with all the activities of a person or other entity (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Carbon dioxide (CO₂)

A chemical compound formed by carbon and oxygen, which is one of the most important greenhouse gases.

Carbon dioxide molecule © Jynto / Discovery Studio Visualizer

Calf

A young, baby, whale, dolphin or harbour porpoise.

A humpback whale mother-calf pair © Fredrik Christiansen

CAFF – Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna

CAFF is the Biodiversity Working Group of the Arctic Council. The main goal of the Working Group is the conservation of the Arctic’s biodiversity and the sustainable management of its living resources. CAFF works to address the challenges facing Arctic ecosystems, including climate change, habitat loss, and the impacts of human activities.

CAFF logo

Buoyancy

The ability of body to float or to rise to the surface when submerged in the water.

Biomagnification

Increase in concentration of chemical substance with increasing trophic level of organism in the food web (Drouillard 2008).

Biomagnification mechanism © WWF

Bioaccumulation

The gradual build-up of a chemical substance over time in a living organism, either because it is taken up faster than it can be used or because the chemical cannot be used by the organism. Bioaccumulation can be dangerous if the accumulated chemical is toxic.

Biomagnification mechanism © WWF

Barnacle

A marine crustacean, that lives very often encrusted attached to a hard substrate such as a rock, shell, ship or whale.

Barnacles on the whale © Fernando Ugarte

Atom

The basic particle of chemical elements. Consists of nucleus with protons and neutrons and surrounded by electron swarm.

The structure of atom © Modified from VilVite

Ambergris

Also known as grey amber. Solid, waxy substance produced in the sperm whale intestines. Fresh ambergris is black, soft, and has unpleasant smell, while exposing to sun causes it to harden, become light grey or yellow, and get pleasant smell it is recognised for. In sperm whales, it is assumed to protect intestines from irritation caused by undigestible objects like squid beak or cuttlebone. In Eastern cultures it is used in medicine, potions, and as a spice, while in the Western cultures it has use as a perfume stabiliser (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Different stages of ambergris © Frans Beuse / Ambergris NZ Ltd

Arctic amplification

A phenomenon whereby any change (negative or positive) in the energy received by the Earth tends to result in a larger temperature change in the Arctic. This phenomenon has caused the Arctic to warm up to three to four times faster due to climate change (Rantanen et al., 2022).

Albedo

The fraction of light that gets reflected by a surface. Bright materials have a higher albedo (i.e., capacity to reflect light) than darker materials. In this context, snow or ice have a higher albedo than trees.

Albedo © Norwegian Polar Institute

Fluke print

Smooth circles on the surface of water left by the movement of the tail fluke underwater. These fluke prints are useful in hunting, to follow the whale under the surface of the water as well as to determine the size of the whale.

Whale fluke prints © Pete Oxford/Minden Pictures

Baleen

Keratin-based structure, like hair, fingernails, and hooves, forming parallel plates that hang from the upper jaw in a comb-like structure. This structure plays the most important role in feeding process.

Baleens © NOAA Fisheries

Predator

An animal that preys, this is hunts, kills, and eats, other animals.

Prey

An animal that is hunted or killed by another animal, a predator, for food.

Adaptation

“The natural process by which a living species becomes the best fitted for its environment. Adaptations are a result of natural selection’s acting upon heritable variation over several generations” (Gittleman, 2022). Organisms adapt in many different ways, their body structure, their physiology, the way they move through their environment, and even on a genetic and molecular level. For instance, the blowhole at the top of a dolphin’s head is an adaptation that allows it to keep swimming without slowing down to breathe by sticking its entire face out of the water.

Fin

A thin flat part that sticks out from the body of a cetacean and is used in moving or guiding the animal through water (Encyclopædia Britannica).

Different fins of common dolphin © NOAA Fisheries

Countershading

A form of camouflage utilised by animals, where their coloration is darker on the upper side of the body and lighter on the underside. This adaptation helps them blend into their environment by reducing the contrast between their body and the surrounding light conditions, making it more challenging for predators or prey to spot them.

Countershading of a minke whale © MRI

Feeding aggregation

A gathering or concentration of individuals of a species in a particular area for the purpose of feeding.

Group of humpback whales feeding © Jan Straley / NOAA Fisheriesr

Eye lens

A spherical part of the eye that bends and focuses light. Its primary function is to regulate the amount of light entering the eye and enable marine mammals to see clearly underwater.

Dorsal fin

The fin located in the back of marine mammals.

Dorsal fin of a killer whale © Fernando Ugarte

Industrial whaling

Large-scale operations using advanced technology and vessels to maximise catches. Industrial whaling of the past has had significant negative impact on species hunted and environment.

Ventral pleats

Accordion-like folds of skin that on the underside of the whale, from their jaw, all the way down to its stomach. These folds have the role of allowing the whale to engulf massive amount of water at once, and effectively entrapping large amounts of their food (krill and small fish).

Lunge feeding mechanism of rorquals © Croll et al. 2018

Subspecies

A group within the same species that is genetically distinguishable from others of the same species.

Ecosystem

A complex system formed by of all living organisms with their interactions, and their physical environment in a particular area. All components of an ecosystem are connected through the nutrient and energy flow.

Toothed whale

Odontoceti. Group of cetaceans that include all whales with teeth, as well as dolphins and porpoises. Apart from teeth, they differ from baleen whales for their ability to echolocate. There are 73 species of toothed whales recognised, of which 14 reside in NAMMCO management area.

Different species of toothed whales (beluga whale, finless porpoise, Cuvier’s beaked whale, Amazon river dolphin)

Feeding ground

Areas of the sea/ocean where marine mammals gather to find and hunt food.

Breeding ground

Areas of the sea/ocean where male and female marine mammals gather for mating, and where females give birth and nurse their calves. Each species has different breeding season depending on their life cycle.

Crossbreeding

The process of breeding an organism with purebred parents of two different breeds, varieties, species, or populations.

Hybrid

An offspring resulting from the crossbreeding of two different species.

A reconstruction of the narluga, hybrid between narwhal and beluga © Markus Bühler

Krill

Shrimp-like crustaceans that live in the open sea.

Krill © Øystein Paulsen

Spout

A powerful burst of air, expelled from a whales blowhole, which creates a spray-like blow around the whale’s head. A whale’s spout can be used to recognise a whale species from afar. This is because each species, with their characteristic size and blowhole type, will have a different spout.

Spouts of different whales © GREMM

Population

A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular area at the same time that share a common genetic pool, allowing them to interbreed (Waples and Gaggiotti, 2006).

Vocalisation

The sounds that cetaceans make to communicate. There are several different sounds used during the vocalisations, such as clicks, whistles, and pulses. Clicks and pulses are generally used in echolocation, while whistles are thought to be used for communication within a group.

Insulation

A cover that prevents heat, sound, or electricity from escaping or entering.

Food chain

The sequence of transfers of matter and energy in the form of food from one organism to another.

Pinniped

Any of a group of 34 species of aquatic fin-footed mammals comprising seals, sea lions, and the walrus (Encyclopædia Britannica). Seven pinniped species are permanent residents in the NAMMCO management area.

Different species of pinnipeds (Atlantic walrus, Hooded seal, Harbour seal, Elephant seal)

Management area

The management area is the area at which the management is done for a given species. A species can have a wide distributional range and be impacted very differently by humans through this range. Hence its conservation status may vary between the areas. Management is therefore done not at the species level, but at the area level, which is relevant for that particular species.

Cetacean

Any member of an entirely aquatic group of mammals commonly known as whales, dolphins, and porpoises (Encyclopædia Britannica). Six species of baleen whales and 10 species of toothed whales are common permanent residents in the NAMMCO management area.

Baleen whale

Any cetacean possessing unique modifications of the mouth called baleen, which is used to filter food from water (Encyclopædia Britannica). There are 6 species of baleen whales in NAMMCO management area.

Different species of baleen whales (Fin whale, Humpback whale, Minke whale, Bowhead whale)

Rorqual

Largest group of baleen whales characterised by the accordion-like folds of skin on their belly side (ventral pleats) that stretch when animal feeds by intaking large amount of water at once.

Minke whale body anatomy © Encyclopædia Britannica

Conservation

The attempt to make humans’ relationship with the environment sustainable while still extracting natural resources.

Abundance estimate

The quantification of the total number of cetaceans or pinnipeds within a certain population or geographic area. Repeating abundance estimate surveys over time in a specific area is an important tool to understand if the number of animals is growing or declining over time. This allows scientists and policymakers to make informed decisions about conservation strategies and management practices.

Management

The process of dealing with something in an effective manner.

Migration

The behaviour in which animals travel from one habitat to another habitat to cover different needs, such as finding better environmental conditions, search food or reproducing.

Humpback whales migrating in the Pacific Ocean © Darren Jew